Gender bias in psychology

• gender bias

  the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not on real differences
• alpha bias

  refers to theories that suggest there are differences between males and females
• beta bias

  refers to theories that ignore or minimise sex differences. these theories often assume that the findings from studies using males can apply equally to females
• androcentrism

  theories which are focused on, or centred on males- means that female behaviour is often judged to be 'abnormal' or 'deficient' by comparison
• • psychologists possess beliefs and values influence by the social and historical context within which they live
  • this may undermine psychologists' claims to discover facts about human behaviour that are objective and consistent across time and culture (universality)
  • one form of bias is gender bias: psychological theory and research may not accurately represent the experience and behaviour of men and women
• alpha bias exaggerates differences
• alpha bias:

  • differences between the sexes are usually presented as real, enduring, fixed and inevitable
  • these differences occasionally heighten the value of women, but are more likely to devalue females in relation to males
• example of alpha bias: the sociobiological theory of relationship formation:

  • wilson explained human sexual attraction through survival efficiency- in a male's interest to impregnate as many females as possible to increase chances of his genes being passed on
  • the female's best chance to preserve her genes is to ensure the survival of the few offspring she may produce
  • sexual promiscuity in males in naturally selected and genetically determined but females who engage in the same behaviour are seen as going against their nature- an exaggeration of the difference between the sexes (alpha bias)
• example of alpha bias: freud's psychodynamic theory:

  • freud's work is alpha biased and androcentric as he argued that women were morally inferior to men because they suffered from penis envy
  • as girls do not experience castration anxiety in the phallic stage, they're not under the same pressure to identify with the same-sex parent
  • females then form a weaker superego and so her sense of morality is inferior to a males
  • femininity is an expression of failed masculinity
  • females vanity is a defence mechanism, to make up for the sexual inferiority to men
• beta bias minimises differences
• beta bias:

  ignoring or underestimating differences between men and women often occurs when female participants are not included in the research process and it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes
• example of beta bias: the fight or flight response:

  • early research into fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals (preferred for research because female hormones fluctuate)- the fight or flight response was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation
  • Taylor et al. suggest female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting attention towards caring for ones offspring (tending) and forming networks with other females (befriending). females exhibit a tend and defend response governed by the hormone oxytocin
• example of beta bias: Kohlberg's theory of moral development:

  • kohlberg suggested from his study of males that women's moral reasoning is based on care
  • women were more empathetic and sensitive to the needs of others
  • men's moral responding is based on justice by adhering to the law
• explain the difference between alpha bias and beta bias

  alpha bias is when a psychological theory suggests there are real and enduring differences between the sexes whereas beta bias is when a theory ignores or minimises differences

  e.g. freud's work is alpha biased as he argued that women were morally inferior because they suffered from penis envy. whereas, the biological explanation of fight or flight demonstrated beta bias. this is because the research was conducted on male animals only and it assumed that animal and human males and females would respond to stress/danger in the same way
• androcentrism

  • this can be a consequence of both alpha and beta bias
  • if our understanding of 'normal' behaviour is being drawn from research that involves 'all male' samples (beta biased); then behaviour that deviates from this may be seen as 'abnormal' by comparison
  • female behaviour is, as a result, misunderstood, underrepresented and often pathologised (taken as a sign of illness)
• example of androcentrism: pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS):

  • feminists object to this as they believe that it is a special construct which stereotypes and trivialises the female experience
  • they point out that female emotions and anger are seen as irrational due to hormones (biological determinism), whereas male emotions including anger is a rational (reasonable) response to external pressure
• limitation: problems of gender bias in psychological research:

  gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour and validate discriminatory practices. it may provide a scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society (e.g. due to PMS). gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women
• limitation: gender bias promotes sexism in research process

  a lack of women at senior research level means female concerns may not be reflected in research questions. male researchers are more likely to have their work published. also, female participants in lab studies are in an inequitable relationship with a (usually male) researcher who has the power to label them irrational and unable to complete complex tasks. this means psychology may be guilt of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research
• limitation: essentialist arguments common in gender bias research

  many gender differences reported by psychologists rebased on an essentialist perspective- that gender difference is inevitable and fixed in nature, walkerdine reports how scientific research in the 1930s showed that intellectual activity (e.g. attending uni) shrivelled a woman's ovaries and harmed her chances of giving birth. essentialist accounts are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological facts. this can create a double-standard in how the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective
• strength: feminist psychologist propose how bias can be avoided

  worell and remer suggest criteria researchers can follow to avoid gender bias. women should be studies within meaningful real-life contexts, and genuinely participate in research instead of being objects of study. also, diversity in groups of women should be studied, rather than comparisons made between women and men. finally, there should be a greater emphasis on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative data. this way of doing research may be preferable and less gender-biased than laboratory-based research