Study 1

• What was the aim of the research on reconstructive memory?


  To investigate whether using leading questions would affect the estimation of speed.
• What was the hypothesis of the study regarding intensity verbs and speed estimation?

  Using higher intensity verbs would result in higher speed estimations.
• What were the independent and dependent variables in the study?

  The independent variable was the intensity of the verbs, and the dependent variable was the estimation of speed.
• How many participants were involved in the study?

  45 participants.
• How were the participants divided for the study?

  They were split into five groups of nine people.
• How many car accident clips were shown to each participant?

  Seven car accident clips.
• What was the duration range of the car accident clips shown to participants?

  The clips spanned from 5 to 30 seconds.
• From where were the car accident clips acquired?


  From driver’s education films.
• What was the critical question asked in the questionnaire?

  The critical question asked about the speed of the car.
• What verbs were used in the critical question regarding speed estimation?

  Hit, collided, bumped, smashed, or contacted.
• What was the mean speed estimate in the 'smash' condition?

  The mean speed estimate was 40.8 mph.
• What was the mean speed estimate in the 'contact' condition?

  The mean speed estimate was 31.8 mph.
• What did the results of the study indicate about the effect of the critical word on participants' answers?


  There was a consistent effect based on the intensity of the verb used.
• How did researchers hypothesize that participants biased their answers?

  Participants biased their answers towards the verb used, estimating a higher speed with 'smash' compared to 'contact'.
• What is a schema, and how might it affect speed estimation in this study?

  A schema is a cognitive framework that can influence memory; it may lead to higher speed estimates based on the word used, such as 'smash'.
• What conclusion did the study suggest about participants' memory?

  Participants' memory could be influenced by suggestive questions.
• What are the strengths of the study?

  • Confounding variables controlled
  • Cause-effect established
  • Generally hard for people to estimate speed of the car
• What are the limitations of the study?

  • Lab experiment may not reflect how participants actually remember
  • Low ecological validity
  • Education films do not have the same emotional value
  • Use of students - inexperienced drivers