social groups

• social class

  -churchgoers are 62% middle class and 38% working class

  -some churches reflect social class characteristics

  -there are two clear divides: those who attend church and those who believe without belonging.

  -Ashworth & Farthing (2007): churchgoing is associated with the MC. People dependent on state benefits are least likely to go to church.

  -Voas & Watt (2014): 2x higher church attendance in rural areas than urban parishes; attendance is higher in the south that the north.

  -AO3: some churches in deprived, inner city areas have high attendance (protestant denominations). Catholic churches attract the Irish, Polish & African who have been deprived. Hard to measure class & religion - McKinnon: 'dearth of research' have to rely on indicators. MC may not be religious but still go to church.
• social class - NAMs & NRMs

  -NAMs: MC as they can afford it and focus on self-progress.

  -NRMs: sects = WC, alternative to mainstream society; cults = MC, consumer based.
• gender

  -women are more religious - 1979: 55% churchgoers = female; 2005: 57% churchgoers = female. AO3: churchgoer stats lack reliability.

  -Brierley (2005): 84% of women believe in God, compared with 64% of men.

  -Modood (1997): women are more likely to see religion as important.

  -men are less likely to participate in religion as God is more powerful.

  -women with children are more religious, they look to God for support.

  -women in full-time employment are less religious.

  -women are more likely to be in NRMs & NAMs as they focus on healing elements.

  -Miller & Hoffman: differential socialisation: women are taught to be submissive/passive, associated with religion; structural location: women partake in religion because of their social role; risk: women tend to be risk-averse.

  -Bruce: women fit well with religion & spirituality as most are not goal orientated and tend to be in the private sphere, unlike men.

  -women as less religious: home life pressures; paid employment; family diversity; feminist values.
• ethnicity

  -ethnic minorities are more religious: 74% of Muslims practiced religion, 70% of Hindus and only 33% of Christians.

  -6% of the British population went to church, 1 in 6 = African Caribbean (5x their proportion in population).

  -2011 census: 67.7% of England and Wales said they were religious; the most common faith, after christianity, was Islam; 25.1% said they were not religious.

  -the British social attitudes survey found 50% didn't belong in a religion AO3: people can believe without belonging.

  -whilst Christian churches are declining, there has been an increase in Mosques & Temples. 1961: only 7 Mosques & 3 Sikh + 1 Hindu Temple; 55k churches. Now: 1500 Mosques, 200 Sikh Temples & 150 Hindu Temples, less than 55k churches.

  -religious identity is more important to ethnic minorities. Ethnic minorities placed it 2nd whilst white British placed it 10th.

  -pentecostalism: 20k attend churches in ldn. Feel alienated outside. Have a missionary purpose.
• reason why ethnic minorities are more religious

  social deprivation, marginality & status frustration:

  -more likely to be marginalised e.g., old Asians who don't have good English. Ethnic minorities who live in poverty are more religious as they are deprived. Turn to religion to help with status frustration.

  
  

  cultural transition:

  -religion can ease the transition from one culture to another, provides support. Herberg (1955): this is why 1st gen immigrants are highly religious.

  
  

  family structures:

  -families are tighter nit in ethnic minorities e.g., the extended family. Maintain religion through socialistion.

  
  

  social identity:

  -create their identity through their religion e.g., clothes & food. Use their religion & culture to create an identity. Johal (1998): British Asians have a hybrid identity (Brasian) - adopt elements of religion

  
  

  community cohesion & identity:

  -Modood et al (1994) religion is important for socialisation & maintains traditional morality. Helps cope with worries that arise from racism.
• ethnicity - Madood, Butler & Mirza

  -Madood (1994): 2nd gen muslims aren't as religious as their parents as they go through primary socialisation in a different culture from their parent.

  -Butler (1995): many 2nd gen people have 'cultural hybridity', religious identity is blended with British.

  -Mirza: media reported more after terrorist attacks, led to islamophobia. Muslims became more religious to show that they are not all bad & extremists. 70% of Muslims are under 25. 35% of 16-24y/os would rather live under Sharia law, more religious & traditional.