BioMolecules

• What are the main groups of biomolecules discussed in the study material?

  Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids
• What is the structure of proteins composed of?

  • Chains of amino acids
  • Linked by peptide bonds
  • 20 different types of amino acids
• What is the central carbon atom in an amino acid called?

  The alpha-carbon
• What are the four groups bonded to the alpha-carbon in an amino acid?

  A hydrogen atom, an amino group (NH₂), a carboxyl group (COOH), and a side chain (R group)
• What are the additional aspects of protein organization?

  • Loops: Connect secondary structures, flexible, vary in length
  • Motifs: Short sequences involved in specific functions (e.g., ATP-binding motif)
  • Domains: Distinct functional regions that can fold independently
• What is the function of collagen in proteins?

  Structural support for cells and tissues
• What role do enzymes play in biological processes?

  They catalyze biochemical reactions in cells
• What is the function of amylase?

  It helps break down starch into glucose
• How does the GLUT4 protein function?


  It facilitates the movement of glucose from the bloodstream into muscle and fat cells by passive facilitated diffusion
• What is the role of antibodies in the immune system?

  They recognize and neutralize foreign substances in the body
• What are the three main groups of carbohydrates?

  1. Monosaccharides
  2. Disaccharides
  3. Polysaccharides
• What are common examples of monosaccharides?

  Glucose, fructose, and galactose
• What is the primary function of monosaccharides?

  To build more complex molecules and provide energy for chemical reactions
• What is D-glucose and where is it found?

  1. glucose is found naturally in plants and vegetables
• How do hexoses and pentoses differ?

  Hexoses have 6 carbons, while pentoses have 5
• What are the characteristics of α-1,4-glycosidic bonds?

  • Formed between the 1' carbon of one α-glucose and the 4' carbon of another
  • Involves the reaction of hydroxyl groups
• What defines a β-1,4-glycosidic bond?

  • Formed when the hydroxyl group on the 1' carbon is at the top of the ring
  • The bond lies above the plane of the sugars
• What are the storage forms of glucose in animals and plants?

  • Glycogen: storage form in animals
  • Starch: storage form in plants (amylose and amylopectin)
• What is cellulose and its role in plants?

  Cellulose is a major structural component of the cell walls of plants
• What are the two types of nucleic acids?

  1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
  2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• What are nucleotides and their role in nucleic acids?


  Nucleotides are the basic building blocks of nucleic acids
• What are the three key elements of nucleotides?

  A pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
• What remains constant across all DNA and RNA nucleotides?

  The phosphate group
• What sugars are used in the construction of RNA and DNA nucleotides?

  Ribose for RNA nucleotides and deoxyribose for DNA nucleotides
• How does deoxyribose differ from ribose?

  Deoxyribose is missing an oxygen atom on carbon 2 compared to ribose
• What nitrogenous base is only found in RNA?

  Uracil
• What are the types of nitrogenous bases?

  • Purines
  • Pyrimidines
• How are nucleotides joined together in DNA?

  By covalent bonds called phosphodiester bonds
• What forms the sugar-phosphate backbone of nucleic acids?

  The covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of the next
• How are two DNA strands held together?

  By hydrogen bonds that form between the base pairs
• What are the three key subtypes of RNA?

  Messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA)
• What is the primary function of mRNA?


  To carry the sequence information from DNA to the site of protein synthesis
• What is the role of rRNA?

  It is a component of ribosomes on which protein synthesis occurs
• What does tRNA do?

  It picks up amino acids and transports them to ribosomes for assembly into polypeptides
• What unique ability does RNA have due to its single-stranded nature?

  • It can form complementary base pairs with itself
  • Examples include hairpin loops, bulges, and internal loops
• What are the main functions of nucleic acids?


  • Store genetic information
  • Transmit genetic information
  • Express genetic information
  • Involved in cellular processes like signal transduction and energy transfer
• What are the key groups of lipids mentioned in the study material?

  Triglycerides, phospholipids, and glycolipids
• What are fatty acids and their structure?

  They are comprised of long hydrocarbon chains (usually 12-24 carbons) and are hydrophobic
• How do saturated and unsaturated fatty acids differ?

  Saturated fatty acids have only c-c single bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more c=c double bonds
• What is the function of triglycerides?

  They store energy in adipose (fat) tissue