Language and Gender

• What is the Deficit Model in language studies?

  The Deficit Model analyzes language by seeing men's language as the norm and women's language as deviating from that norm.
• What do adherents of the Deficit Model believe about women's language?

  They believe it is the responsibility of women to become 'bilingual' in both male and female language to communicate effectively.
• Who is credited with making language and gender a significant debate in linguistics?

  Robin Lakoff.
• What criticism did Lakoff's book 'Language and Women’s Place' face?

  It was met with widespread criticism for lacking precise statistical evidence.
• What does Lakoff's admission in her book suggest about her research approach?

  It suggests that her conclusions were based on impressions rather than empirical data.
• What are some features of women's language according to Lakoff?

  Features include hedging, use of polite forms, tag questions, emphatic language, and empty adjectives.
• What are the main features of women's language according to Robin Lakoff?

  • Hedging (e.g., "sort of", "kind of")
  • Use of (super) polite forms (e.g., "Would you mind...")
  • Use of tag questions (e.g., "You're going to dinner today, aren't you?")
  • Emphatic language and intensifiers (e.g., "so", "very")
  • Use of empty adjectives (e.g., "divine", "lovely")
  • Hypercorrect grammar and pronunciation
  • Use of direct quotations
  • Special lexicon (more words for colors)
  • Question intonation in declarative statements
  • Avoiding coarse language
  • Lack of humor
  • Apologizing more
  • Indirect commands and requests
• What is a characteristic of male spoken language according to the study material?

  Men use a more direct style, often employing explicit commands.
• How do men typically interrupt in conversations according to the Dominance Model?

  Men are more likely to interrupt women, often to dominate the conversation.
• What did Zimmerman and West's study reveal about interruptions in mixed-sex conversations?

  They found that men used 46 interruptions while women only used 2 in their recorded conversations.
• What criticism did Geoffrey Beattie have regarding Zimmerman and West's findings?

  He pointed out that a single voluble man could skew the results and questioned whether interruptions necessarily reflect dominance.
• What is Dale Spender's view on language and male power?

  Spender believes that language itself sustains male power and that men seek to dominate women through talk.
• What did Pamela Fishman find regarding tag questions in her research?

  Fishman found that tag questions were used four times more by women than by men.
• How does Peter Trudgill's hypothesis relate social class to language use?

  Trudgill believed that higher social classes would use more standard language forms, with language use changing based on awareness of speech.
• What does Jennifer Coates argue about women's speech?

  Coates argues that women are seen as an oppressed group and interprets speech differences in terms of men's dominance.
• What are the key differences in male and female speech according to the study material?

  • Topic of choice: Men discuss impersonal topics; women discuss sensitive aspects.
  • Dominance: Males may dominate conversations, holding the floor longer.
  • Rapid Fire: Males exchange comments quickly; women are more supportive.
  • No Overlaps: Males prefer to talk one at a time, avoiding overlaps.
• What does the Difference Model suggest about male and female communication?

  The Difference Model sees men and women as belonging to different subcultures with different communication styles due to socialization.
• Who is Deborah Tannen and what is her contribution to the study of language and gender?

  Deborah Tannen is a linguist who published 'You Just Don’t Understand' and advocates for the Difference Model.
• What are the differences in language use between men and women according to Tannen?

  Men use language for power; women use it for support and connection.
• What are the observations made by Jennifer Coates regarding boys' and girls' speaking styles?

  • Peer groups influence social linguistic growth.
  • Girls stay in smaller, talk-focused groups.
  • Boys stay in larger groups with joint activities.
  • Different interactions lead to different language habits.
• What does Christine Howe suggest about gender differences in language?

  Howe suggests that gender is not a key factor and that differences arise from other factors.
• What did Jane Pilkington argue about women's and men's speech patterns?

  Women focus on maintaining social relationships, while men are competitive and often disagree.
• What did Koenraad Kuiper find about language use in rugby teams?

  Kuiper found that rugby teams used insults to express solidarity and save face.
• What is the Gender Similarities Hypothesis (Diversity Model)?

  • Identity is constructed through talk.
  • Constant re-negotiation of subjectivity and position within the group hierarchy.
• What is Deborah Cameron's criticism of gender language differences?

  Cameron criticizes the idea that men and women use language in very different ways, calling it a myth.
• What is Janet Hyde's hypothesis regarding male and female language differences?

  Hyde's hypothesis claims there are more similarities than differences between male and female language.