Immunology

• What is the causative agent of malaria?

  Plasmodium
• What type of organism is Plasmodium classified as?

  Protoctist
• What happens to liver cells and red blood cells when Plasmodium multiplies?

  They burst when more parasites are produced, a process known as lysis.
• What are some common symptoms of malaria?


  Severe bouts of fever, flu-like illness, headache, muscle aches, and tiredness.
• What additional symptoms may occur in malaria patients?

  Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea may also occur.
• How is malaria transmitted to humans?


  By a vector - a female mosquito from the genus Anopheles when feeding on blood.
• What preventive measures can be taken against malaria?

  • Use of nets
  • Wearing protective clothing
  • Applying repellent
• Why are vaccines for malaria difficult to develop?

  Vaccines are difficult to develop due to the complex life cycle of the Plasmodium parasite.
• What is the purpose of drug treatment in malaria?

  To reduce the chances of infection.
• What types of drugs are available for treating malaria?

  Drugs that affect Plasmodium outside cells are available but have limited success and side effects.
• What is malaria caused by?

  A single-celled parasite of the genus Plasmodium
• In which kingdom does the Plasmodium parasite belong?

  Protoctista
• How many different species of Plasmodium may cause malaria?

  Five
• Which species of Plasmodium causes the most deaths from malaria?

  Plasmodium falciparum
• Which species of Plasmodium is also considered a major killer?

  Plasmodium vivax
• What is the vector that transmits Plasmodium?

  A species of mosquito from the genus Anopheles
• How does transmission of Plasmodium occur?

  When the infected mosquito pierces the skin of a human to take a blood meal
• Which gender of mosquito is responsible for transmitting the Plasmodium parasite?

  Only the adult females
• Why do adult female mosquitoes feed on human blood?


  To transmit the parasite from human to human
• What is the primary host of the Plasmodium parasite?

  The adult female mosquito
• Does the adult female mosquito suffer from the presence of the Plasmodium parasites?

  No, she does not suffer from their presence
• What are the key components related to the Plasmodium parasite and its transmission?

  • Malaria is caused by Plasmodium (kingdom: Protoctista)
  • Five species of Plasmodium cause malaria
  • Plasmodium falciparum causes the most deaths
  • Plasmodium vivax is also a major killer
  • Transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes
  • Transmission occurs via mosquito blood meals
  • Only adult female mosquitoes are vectors
  • Adult females do not suffer from the parasites
• What type of antibiotic is penicillin?

  Narrow-spectrum, bactericidal antibiotic
• How does penicillin affect bacterial cells?

  It affects the formation of cross-linkages in the peptidoglycan cell wall during growth and division
• What enzyme does penicillin inhibit?

  Transpeptidase
• What is the mechanism by which penicillin binds to transpeptidase?

  Penicillin binds irreversibly and is not complementary to the active site of the enzyme
• What happens to the enzyme's function when penicillin binds to it?

  The enzyme's function is permanently altered
• What effect does penicillin have on the bacterial cell wall?

  It weakens the cell wall
• What would happen to bacterial cells placed in a hypotonic solution if their cell wall is weakened by penicillin?

  The cells would likely burst due to osmotic pressure
• Why are Gram-positive bacteria more susceptible to penicillin?

  Because they have a thick peptidoglycan cell wall
• Why are Gram-negative bacteria less affected by penicillin?

  Because they have a thin peptidoglycan cell wall and an outer lipopolysaccharide layer
• What is the reason viruses are not affected by antibiotics?

  Viruses do not have a cell wall
• What are the key structural components of Gram-negative bacteria?

  • Thin peptidoglycan cell wall
  • Outer lipopolysaccharide layer
  • Outer membrane
  • Periplasmic space
  • Cytoplasmic membrane
• What are the key structural components of Gram-positive bacteria?

  • Thick peptidoglycan cell wall
  • No outer membrane
  • Lipoteichoic acids