Issues and Debates

• Alpha Bias


  Exaggerates the difference between sexes
• Beta Bias


  Minimises the difference between sexes
• Example of alpha bias


  Sociobiological theory of relationship formation
• Who created the sociobiological theory of relationship formation?

  Wilson (1975)
• Sociobiological theory of relationship formation

  Males aim to impregnate as many women as possible

  Women aim to ensure healthy survival of offspring

  Men are biologically inclined to be sexually promiscuous
• Example of research with beta bias


  Fight or flight
• Fight or flight research was only based on male animals but assumed to be universal
• Who came up with female version of fight or flight?

  Shelley Taylor et al
• Shelley Taylor et al


  Suggested female biology inhibits fight or flight, instead focusing on tending and befriending
• Tending (Taylor et al)


  Nurturing offspring
• Befriending (Taylor et al)


  Forming defensive female networks
• Female version of fight or flight

  Tend and befriend
• Androcentricism


  Judgement of behaviour on a male standard, based on research on men
• Example of androcentricism


  PMS diagnosis - social construction to medicalise female emotions (especially anger)
• Women 70% more likely to be diagnosed with depression
• ADHD and Autism diagnosis based on male-only studies
• Up to 75% girls with ADHD estimated to be undiagnosed
• 90% pharmalogical studies describe male-only studies
• When both sexes are studied, 2/3 times results aren't analysed by sex
• Ethnocentricism


  Belief in superiority of one's own cultural group
• Cultural Relativism


  Person's beliefs, values, and practices are understood in the context of the culture they were raised in
• Intelligence and ethnocentricism


  IQ test designed in Western culture - Aborigines in Australia have average IQ of 65
• Gender and Cultural Bias Consequences


  Misrepresentation of results - don't challenge stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices

  Essentialism - suggests differences are fixed - leads to oversimplification of behaviour and stereotypes
• Gender Bias Solutions


  Inclusively - Include diverse range of participants and clarify differences specific to different sexes

  Reflexivity - Researcher critically reflecting on personal biases to enhance objectivity

  Feminist psychology - Including women and investigating historically overlooked topics
• Cultural Bias Solutions


  Inclusivity - Including diverse range of participants and clarifying differences specific to certain cultural backgrounds to prevent overgeneralisation

  Reflexivity - Researcher critically reflecting on personal biases to increase objectivity

  No extrapolation (Cultural relativism)

  Cross-cultural research including working alongside native researchers to be sensitive to cultural norms
• Social Sensitivity


  In studies in which there are potential consequences either for participants or the wider public
• Questions around ethical implications


  What impact will research have?

  Can we retain control?

  How will results be used?

  Could research support bias?
• Peer review provides assurance about...


  Quality of methodology

  Accuracy of data analysis

  Justification of development conclusions
• Aims of Peer Reviewing


  Validate quality of research

  Suggest amendments

  Allocate funding
• Issues with Peer Reviewing


  Anonymity of reviewer - could have own agenda or personal bias

  Filer Draw Phenomenon - only interested in research that finds something

  Maintenance of status quo - leads to slow rate of change
• Ethical Implications Researchers


  Sieber and Stanley
• Ethical Implications Eval


  Cost-benefit of research

  Short term costs vs long term gains

  Dealing with social sensitivity - identifying concerns, considering effects, being upfront about biases

  Reflexivity (self-reflection)
• Features of Science

  Objectivity

  Falsifiability

  Empirical Method

  Replicability

  Hypothesis Testing

  Theory Construction

  Paradigms (and Paradigm Shifts)
• Objectivity


  Researcher remains unbiased and impartial in scientific investigations
• Falsifiability


  A theory can only be considered scientific if it can be established as false
• Empirical Method


  Relies on used of objective, quantitative observation in a controlled, replicable situation for evidence to support a theory
• Hypothesis Testing


  Part of scientific process where theories are developed and refined, generating testable predictions
• Theory Construction


  Theories serve as explanatory frameworks to understand behaviour and it's causes. Logical organisation and interpretation of empirical observations to provide basis for testable hypotheses
• Paradigm


  Set of shared assumptions about how behaviour is studied and explained which is generally accepted
• Paradigm Shift


  Significant transformation in fundamental concepts of scientific discipline - often occurs in response to new evidence