A science of the mind?

• What is psychology?


  Typically defined as a science of the mind, but we need to define science and define mind.
• What is science?


  Lots of different views, but best to focus on what do we actually mean when we refer to science? How do you separate science from stuff that is not science?
• Traditional view of Science

  In the context of Psychology, science starts in the 17th century, in a European context - what we think of as modern science.

  Depending on how you define science it can be traced back to everywhere and anywhere.
• How Psychologists think of science:

  Science as we think about it was based on observations of facts.

  Facts are things seen as independent of observation = objective (independent of theory, opinion)Facts build up theories, and then perhaps laws if we feel confident.
• What is the method of induction?

  Induction is a process of reasoning used in science to draw general conclusions from evidence, involving the use of hypotheses.
• Fundamental problem of induction.

  The problem of induction is that we can observe facts, but none of us can observe all the facts. Therefore conclusions are always based on limited facts.

  If we want to make a claim about universal/general laws they’re always based on limited facts.

  For example, the idea that all swans are white. We can claim that all the swans that we see are white, but we can't know that all swans are white, because we haven’t seen ALL swans.
• Logical Positivists (early 20th Century): 


  They like logic and positivism.=> Knowledge/science based on observation, induction and verification
• Problems with Logical Positivism.

  Laws, forces, etc. aren't directly observable (what can science claim?), i.e. cannot observe gravity directly.

  Doesn't rule out ‘unscientific’ claims, cannot separate the two. E.g. astrology, typically seen as a classic pseudoscience, could go to an astrologer who will claim something will happen, if it happens its claim has been verified by observation, but still doesn’t make it a science.

  If anything can be verified by observation, then anything could be a science.

  So then how do we distinguish between science and non-science, problem of demarcation
• Logical Positivists claim that meaningful knowledge must be verifiable by observation.
• Karl Popper's view on science:

  He rejected that science is induction, verifiability (as too permissive, as it allows too many things). Claimed that it is only scientific if it is falsifiable.An exemplar: Einstein’s theory of general relativity verified, not refuted. Verifying the theory by observation doesn’t matter, Popper says that science is ‘every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify it … the criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability, or testability.’Problem of induction: ‘all swans are white’ falsified by one black swan
• What is the problem of demarcation?

  The problem of demarcation is a central issue in the philosophy of science. It deals with the challenge of distinguishing between science and non-science, including pseudoscience
• Thomas Kuhn's view on science:

  He rejected falsifiability (as too permissive, even things such as astrology can be falsified). Falsification in practice is not what scientists do in normal science, as anomalies can resist.
• What does Kuhn say that science does?

  Science solves puzzles consistent with a paradigm (the agreed what and how of a science e.g. questions we asked, methods we used, facts/answers that gave us)Paradigm shift: proposes new puzzles (not determined by observation!).

  Every now and then, some people propose a new paradigm, new questions and methods, producing new kinds of facts. Thus the shift from a new paradigm is not determined by observation because paradigms are incommensurable…
• Paradigms incommensurable meaning

  Incompatible, because you cannot compare different kinds of facts. For example, compare early psychology (data represent human experience) to behaviourism (data represent behaviour), cannot be done as the facts represent different things.
• Scientific observations theory-laden: based on theoretical assumptions, are not independent of the observer. We do not see something as it truly is, we see it as something. We also interpret data as representative of something, thus science is not entirely objective.
• The problem of demarcation (between science and non-science):

  The applicability of any criteria must be assessed (by people)What counts as science: must be agreed; is sometimes disputedIn short: what is science? There is no self-evident answer…

  We don’t have a universal agreement, however in psychology we do generally, as a science (which is not all of psych) = based on measurement (reduced to numbers), falsification and testing hypotheses.

  However, the boundary that separates science from non-science is fuzzy.
• What is the mind?

  The relationship between the mind and the brain, when talking about the mind it’s typically linked to the brain.
• The mind-brain relationship - types

  Monism: either mind or matter (mono = one)

  Idealism: only mind

  Materialism: only (brain) matter

  Dualism: mind and matter (both substances)
• (substance) Dualism: mind and matter - 3 types


  Cartesian dualismParallelismEpiphenomenalism
• Cartesian dualism: 


  Mind and matter interact. From Descartes, argued that mind and matter are separate things (mind is non material, and matter is material), and sometimes they interact. Aka interactional dualism. Wasn’t sure how the mind and matter interacted, how does a material thing interact with an immaterial thing?
• Parallelism

  No interaction, but mind and matter are in synch
• Epiphenomenalism: 


  Mind epiphenomenon of brain, mind doesn’t have causal effect on matter, but matter (brain) has a causal effect on the mind i.e. steam doesn’t affect kettle, but kettle affects steam.
• Materialism: 


  Mind reduced to matter, thus there is only one thing, as there is no mind, only brain.
• Behaviorism: 


  Mental concepts = dispositions to behave. Argument that mental concepts can be reduced to behaviour, could be questionable.
• Identity theories:

  Type and token
• Identity theory (type): 


  Each type of mental state = specific brain state. That mind and brain are identical, they are the SAME THING. One type of identity theory is called type theory, because it is about different mental states. Argument of type theory is that each type of mental state is just a specific brain state.But multiple realizability? How can the same mental state be recognised in different brain states?
• Identity theory (token): 


  Each token of mental state = specific brain state.

  Every specific mental state, even if only slightly different = different brain states. But countless brain states, so how do we come up with laws? + if mind-brain identical, then what is the point of Psychology?
• What is multiple realizability?

  This concept suggests that the same mental state can be realized by different physical states of the brain.
• Functionalism:

  Define mind in terms of function, think of it not as separate from the brain, but rather what the brain does.Computer metaphor in mid-20th century: brain as hardware, mind as softwareAbove metaphor addresses the problem of multiple realizability.

  Is somewhat a combination of materialism (only brain) + dualism (what it does)
• Problem with functionalism:

  The problem of qualia (‘raw feels’)

  quality of experience: more than brain events + information-processing

  Doesn’t capture the human experience.

  The problem of intentionality: mental phenomena about something

  The mind can be understood as more than the brain …
• The 4 Es of the extended mind:

  Embedded

  Embodied

  Extended and

  Enactive
• Summary


  What is science? = no self-evident answerIn practice, (most) psychologists define science in terms of methodsWhat is mind? = no self-evident answerIn practice, (most) psychologists define specific mental concepts in particular terms (relating toparticular theories, methods, and aims)Psychology as a science, and what it studies, has changed over time …