Learning

• How are learning and memory related?

  Learning refers to the acquisition of knowledge, while memory refers to the retention of that knowledge.
• What are the three levels at which learning and memory can be studied?

  Behavioural, structural, and neural levels.
• Why is learning necessary from an evolutionary perspective?

  Learning provides flexibility to adapt to novel problems and opportunities.
• What is an example of a hard-wired behavior?

  Limb withdrawal reflex.
• What is the challenge in studying learning in the brain?

  The complexity of the brain, with 30,000 neurons and 1 billion synapses in 1mm³.
• How do simple brains contribute to our understanding of learning?

  Simple brains allow researchers to study learning mechanisms without the complexity of larger brains.
• What is habituation?


  Learning about repeated events where the magnitude of an existing reflex changes.
• What is sensitization?


  Learning about repeated events where the magnitude of an existing reflex increases.
• What are the basic forms of learning?

  • Habituation: Non-associative learning about repeated events.
  • Sensitization: Non-associative learning where the reflex magnitude increases.
  • Classical Conditioning: Associative learning to predict significant events.
  • Instrumental Conditioning: Associative learning to control significant events.
• What is the significance of habituation in learning?

  Habituation allows organisms to disregard unimportant events, saving time and resources.
• How does sensitization affect responses to important events?

  Sensitization enhances responses to important events, making them more noticeable.
• What is the role of Aplysia Californica in learning research?

  Aplysia Californica has a simple nervous system that facilitates the study of cellular mechanisms of learning.
• What happens during habituation in Aplysia Californica?

  Repeated light touches to the siphon lead to a decreased gill withdrawal reflex.
• What is the neural basis of habituation in Aplysia Californica?

  Light touch to the siphon triggers a gill withdrawal reflex through sensory and motor neurons.
• How does serotonin affect the gill withdrawal response in Aplysia Californica?

  Serotonin release from interneurons increases glutamate release, enhancing the gill withdrawal response.
• What is the functional significance of habituation?

  Habituation allows organisms to ignore unimportant stimuli, which is adaptive for survival.
• How can habituation explain human behaviors like promiscuity?

  Habituation of sexual arousal can lead to decreased interest in partners over time.
• What is dishabituation?

  Dishabituation is the restoration of a response to a stimulus after a period of abstinence.
• How does sensitization relate to psychological disorders?


  Sensitization can lead to heightened responses to minor stressors in disorders like PTSD and depression.
• What is classical conditioning?

  • Learning to predict future events.
  • Involves associative learning where one event signals another.
  • Typically studied through Pavlovian conditioning.
• What is the unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning?

  The unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that naturally triggers a reflexive response.
• What is the conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning?

  The conditioned response is the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
• What is the role of the cerebellum in motor learning?

  The cerebellum is crucial for the acquisition and retention of motor conditioned responses.
• What is the interposed nucleus in the cerebellum responsible for?

  The interposed nucleus is involved in motor output and the convergence of information about conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.
• How can classical conditioning explain the acquisition of fears and phobias?

  Classical conditioning can lead to the development of fears when a neutral stimulus is paired with an aversive event.
• What is the significance of exposure therapies in treating phobias?

  Exposure therapies aim to extinguish conditioned responses by presenting the conditioned stimulus without reinforcement.
• How does instrumental conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

  Instrumental conditioning involves learning to control events through actions, while classical conditioning involves learning associations between events.
• What are the key components of instrumental conditioning?

  • Learning to control significant events.
  • Involves appetitive and aversive responses.
  • Associated with behaviorists like Thorndike and Skinner.
• How do actions and habits differ in instrumental conditioning?


  Actions are based on expectancy, while habits are responses triggered by antecedent stimuli.
• What happens to brain activity during the transition from action to habit?

  Brain activation shifts from the prefrontal cortex to the striatum during the transition from action to habit.
• What characterizes compulsive behaviors in disorders like OCD?


  Compulsive behaviors are marked by a loss of volition and cognitive flexibility, leading to habitual responses triggered by stimuli.
• What is the importance of structural changes in the nervous system for learning retention?

  Long-lasting learning requires structural changes such as new connections and increased receptors in existing connections.