Medieval

• Witches and spirits:

  • Some people believed that supernatural spirits could live inside a person and cause illnesses

  Some people in Church did 'exorcisms' to remove spirits from bodies

  • Witches were thought to be responsible for diseases spreading
• Astrology:

  • These supernatural reasons were based on astrology (how stars and planets were aligned)
  • Astrology was 1st used in Arabic society but was used in Europe after 1100
  • Doctors used star signs and an almanac (calendar showing planetary movements) to diagnose and treat disease.
• The Contribution of Christianity:

  Supernatural Causes:

  • The church promoted the belief that illness was because of supernatural causes, Christians believed God would heal illness
  • Prayers were viewed as the most important kind of treatment.
  • Christians would go on pilgrimages to relics or to a resting place of saints in hope of miraculously recover from illnesses
• Forbade dissections:

  • The Church only allowed dissection to happen on criminals who've already been executed

  Meant that Galen's mistaken beliefs about anatomy (holes in heart and blood being absorbed not circulated) could not be corrected.

  • Religion and superstition slowed progress
• Wars:

  • Some historians have claimed that the Church's encouragement of the Crusades diverted funds away from hospitals and health towards wars.
  • However, the Crusades meant that Western Europeans met Muslim doctors

  This meant that ideas from the Islamic Empire could be used in Europe.
• Medical Writings:

  • Lots of Ancient Roman and Greek medical texts were lost when the Roman Empire fell

  Monks tried to copy and preserve medical texts

  • Dissent began to be caused by people questioning the Church's reliance on old books.

  For example, a monk called Roger Bacon was arrested for challenging the books in 1200s
• Following Jesus:

  Christian Duty:

  • Following Jesus Christ's example, Christians believed that helping the sick was a Christian Duty
  • Monasteries were usually hygienic and had clean water and good sewage facilities
• New hospitals:

  • Because of religious beliefs, the Church prompted creation of hospital. Hospitals were funded by the Church and aristocratic patrons.

  Hospitals were usually overseen by priests not doctors
• Palliative hospitals:

  • Hospitals were designed to help look after the sick not to treat and heal them. Most medicine in medical times was palliative (relieve symptoms not care conditions)

  For example, Bedlam in London was founded in 1247 to look after those with mental illnesses.

  • People with leprosy were isolated in 'lazar houses'
• Hippocrates:

  Background Hippocrates:

  • Hippocrates (born in 460 BC) lived in Ancient Greece.

  He advocated (supported) used natural treatments to treat diseases and developed lots of theories about medicine

  • These included:

  Clinical observation

  4 humours theory

  Hippocratic oath.
• Clinical observation:

  • Hippocrates invented the idea of 'clinical observation'
  • This involved a doctor being objective and using logic to deduce what's wrong with the patient.

  A doctor should examine and monitor a patient symptoms to diagnose their disease or illness
• The Hippocratic Oath:

  • Doctors today take the Hippocratic oath and bind them to keep a set of ethical standards to treat their patients well
• The 4 humours theory:

  • Hippocrates also develop the theory of 4 humours.
  • To be healthy, the Ancient Greek believed that a person needed to have balanced humours. People got disease for having too much or too little humour.
• Phlegm:

  • relating to winter and water, Ancient Greeks believed phlegm was produced in the brain and lungs. Phlegm was considered cold and wet.
  • Remedy of phlegm imbalance, doctors suggested breathing steam or eating vegetables filled with water.
• Blood:

  • Blood is related to Spring and air. The Ancient Greeks believed blood was produced in the brain and liver. Blood was considered hot and wet
  • Remedy for blood imbalance, doctors used bloodletting or suggested eating red meat or drinking red wine.
• Black bile:

  • related to autumn and earth, Ancient Greeks believed black bile is produced in the gallbladder, considered cold and dry
  • Remedy for black bile imbalance, doctors gave laxatives and suggested eating more vegetables.
• Yellow Bile:

  • related to summer and fire. Ancient Greeks believed that yellow bile is produced in spleen. Considered hot and dry
  • remedy for yellow bile imbalance, doctors forced patients to throw up or change diet.
• Galen:

  Similar views to Hippocrates:

  • Galen believed that imbalances in 4 humours of the body caused diseases.
  • Supported clinical observation and encourages doctors to monitor pulse or take urine samples to find out what was wrong with the patient

  But Galen thought that blood was absorbed or taken in by the body rather than pumped around it.
• Theory of opposites:

  • Galen advanced the understanding of humours through Theory of Opposites.
  • He thought that humours could be re balance by giving the patient something opposite to their symptoms

  For example, if you have excess blood (hot and wet), doctors should prescribe treatment with something cold and dry
• Monotheistic:

  • Although Galen lived in the Roman Empire, he believed in monotheism (one single god).

  Because of this, Christian Church supported his ideas of medicine.

  • As the Church put their weight behind Galen's ideas of medicine, it was frowned upon to question Galen.
• Miasmas Theory:

  • Miasma Theory was also included in Galen's thinking

  Miasmas theory said that bad air made someone ill when they breathed it in

  It was very popular in Medieval England and was probably the most powerful theory of disease until late 1800s
• Ideas lasting for 1400 years:

  • Because of Church's support, Galen's ideas endured as the foundation of medicine for 1400 years.

  The fact that he was monotheistic and had the Church's support shoes that chance can lead ideas to spread and be used everywhere.
• Public Health in Ancient Rome:

  Aqueducts, sewers and baths:

  • Roman emperors and senators spent a lot of money on building aqueducts to bring clean water into Roman cities

  Likely to be because they thought that unclean drinking water, sewage and dirt tended to make people ill

  • Ancient Romans built toilets, sewers and public baths that were used to take waste out of buildings and people's homes
• Doctors:

  • Doctors in Ancient Rome were recommended herbs and plants as medicines and they often fitted with Galen's Theory of Opposites.
  • Bleeding was common treatment but surgery was very rare
• Religion:

  • The Romans believed that Gods and supernatural things could affect health.

  Aesculapius was the Roman God of Health and Medicine

  Carna was a Roman god who kept the heart and organs healthy.
• Supernatural and Religious Explorations

  God:

  • Many people thought that illness was God's will. If someone does a bad deed (committed a sin) God punishes them with illness
  • Prayer and repentance were thought to be the only way to become better after an illness/disease
  • To repent for bad deeds, many used prayer or flagellation (whip yourself)