Renaissance

• Writing and knowledge:

  • Scholars were paid to restore old texts and fix the bad translations that had been published in the Middle Ages

  The theories proposed by Hippocrates and Galen became popular again
• Humanism ans science:

  • There was an increased focus on the importance of human factors rather than supernatural things. This was called humanism
  • There was also a focus on direct observation and experiments to explain things rather than blame them on something supernatural

  This led some people to question the Church.
• Communication and the printing press:

  • Renaissance means rebirth. It was a time of rebirth in the arts and science. The printing press (created in 1440) was very important to share and spread ideas.

  The printing press allowed knowledge to be shared with more people very cheaply.

  • Books and leaflets could be printed and sent across Europe whereas previously, a lot of information was only told person to person
• Impact on medicine:

  • The rediscovery of Galen and Hippocrates work meant that people began to see the importance of dissection and human anatomy.
  • The focus on humans and the increased spread of ideas all encouraged experimentation and search for explorations.
  • People began to dissect human bodies (corpse) and there were illustrations in medical writings and books
• Dissection:

  The focus on humans and increased amount of ideas all encouraged experimentation and the search for explanations. Leonardo da Vinci was a key to illustrator of anatomy
• New weapons and injuries:

  • Guns became more common in 17th century warfare. This led to new injuries and doctors had to find new ways to treat gunshot wounds.
• Fewer British hospital:

  • Between 1536 and 1541, Henry VII closed a lot of Britain's monasteries.
  • Because hospitals are often run by monasteries there are actually fewer hospitals in this period than in previous years.
• Dissections:

  • Dissections became a more integral part in medical training
  • The College of Physicians (founded in 1518) improved training and encouraged scientific observation.
• Doctors:

  • Doctors in the Renaissance period still didn't have much training.

  They still used old methods that people like Harvey thought were ineffective but some people began to use more modern techniques.
• Lack of alternatives:

  • The printing press and the work of Harvey, Pare, Vesailius and Sydenham helped to spread new ideas.

  However blood transfusions only offered a solution to treat patients using Harvey's theory of circulation in 1628
• Religion and supernatural:

  • Europe in the Renaissance was still a very religious place.
  • Doctors still believed that supernatural things caused illnesses.
  • Pilgrimages and prayers were still prescribed to cure illnesses
  • The people believed the 'Royal Touch' could cure disease.

  People would flock to the king to be cured of scrofula.

  • People still sought wise women and apothacaries to cure disease.
• Advances in Medicine:

  • There were advances in approaches to medicine.

  Hospitals began to focus on treating patients not just caring for them.

  Lots of towns had pharmacies

  Books were being published which covered how to treat illness at home.
• Quackery:

  • Quackery was a form of medicine based on spectacles and displays
  • Many people viewed this as fraudulent medicine and this became more common in the 17th-18th centuries
  • Quacks claimed their medicines could care about everything but they were usually ineffective.
  • Often gave patients depressants like opium which gave patients the impression that they were getting better. Th reality, they were giving their patients an addiction.
• The Work of Thomas Sydenham:

  Thomas Sydenham is a British physician born in 1624 who advanced the use of scientific process in medicine. His records were a first stage to statistics kept by William Farr over 100 years later.
• Scientific observation:

  • Sydenham prioritised treating patients and observing the outcomes rather than learning from books.
  • He recorded his observations of patients illnesses and treatments and this allowed him to see patterns between illnesses and treatments.
• Classification of diseases and diagnosis:

  • Sydenham used his records and the patterns he spotted to classify diseases to different types based on which symptoms the patient had
  • For example, Sydenham should that measles and scarlet fever were different types of diseases.
• Writings:

  • In 1676, he published a book named 'medical observations'
  • Medical observations were used by doctors for centuries.
  • He described different illnesses and suggested ways to treat them (e.g for illness like gout.)
• More efficient technology:

  • Before the printing press, books were copied by hand.
  • This either took months for each copy or was not done because it took too much effort.
  • In 1480, there were 110 printers in Europe. By 1500 they were in 77 cities in Italy and by 1600, 151 cities had printing presses.
• Spreading ideas:

  • Being able to print more books quickly meant that more people could read other people's ideas and theories.
  • The writings of Galen and Pare could be reprinted in lots of different languages for people all across Europe to read.
  • By 1500, 20 million copies had been made by Western European printing press
• Scientific process:

  • If people do not fully understand a theory it is hard to critique it.
  • Publishing lots of copies of a theory can mean that lots of people understand a theory in more detail and can then work out what is wrong with it and whether it is right.
  • Students studying medicine and other thing could use books and textbooks for reference more often.
• The Royal Society:

  it's created with support of Charles III in November 1660. It's an institution whose job was to promote and support scientific research.
• Spreading scientific ideas:

  • The Royal society's journal was called 'Philosophical Transactions'
  • This journal was well-respected and helped to spread scientific and medical ideas across Britain.

  Isaac Newton's first power 'New Theory about Light and Colours' was published in Philosophical Transactions.
• The scientific process:

  • The motto of the Royal Society was 'Nullius in Verba'. This means 'take nobody's word for it'
  • This motto sound similar to the scientific process. Make observations and question assumptions underlying different medical treatments and scientific theories.
• How does the Printing Press work?


  The press pushes down on a hard surface and transforms ink into paper.
• Hospitals:

  • The modern hospitals that we use today were born in the 17th-18th century.
  • These hospitals were funded by wealthy people or by private subscriptions from the local community.
  • Specialist wards and specialist hospitals were established to treat certain diseases. This organisation was more effective at curing disease.
• Changes in hospitals:

  • Not much change in nursing during Renaissance
  • Reformers like Florence Nightengale drove a lot of reforms in hospitals, but this was not until mid-1800s.
• Workhouses:

  • Poor people were often looked after in the workhouses.

  Workhouses were large buildings where the unemployed, ill or elderly could be looked after.

  • Conditions in workhouses were often really bad although it got better after 1850.
• Number of hospitals:

  • In the 18th century there was a significant increase in hospitals.

  For example, in London there were 5 new general hospitals built between 1720 and 1750. Hospitals like Gayes Hospital opened.

  • This was accompanied by a rise in patient numbers.
• Attitudes and beliefs:

  • Hospital treatment was free but most treatment is still based on 4 humours.
  • Attitudes to illness began to change in the 18th century.
  • This idea that illness was a punishment for sin was increasingly less popular.
• College of Physicians:

  • Set up in 1518. Most British doctors were trained here and they were still learning Galen's work.
  • In the 18th century, most doctors still believed in the 4 humours or that disease was spread through miasma.
  • Doctors got a license if they were trained at the college of physicians.

  Quack doctors didn't receive this license but some unlicensed doctors were also good doctors.
• Surgeons:

  • There were 2 types of surgeons:

  Professional surgeons who had trained at university and were expensive and well paid.

  Barber surgeons who were unqualified and not very respected.

  • Surgeons status began to improve and in 1800, the London College of Surgeons was set up. It created training standards for surgeons.
• The Work of Vesalius:

  Andreas Vesalius is a physician who studied in Paris and Louvain. Became a professor of surgery at the University of Padua.
• Dissections:

  • Vesalius thought that surgery would only get better if people understood human anatomy and the body better

  He used dissections of executed criminals to show that Galen's understanding of the human body was wrong.

  • He faced opposition for criticising Galen and had to leave his job at the university.
• Vesalius writings:

  • Vesalius published his 6 Anatomical Pictures in 1538 and then published 'On The Fabric of the Human Body' in 1543.

  On the Fabric of the Human Body had illustrations based on Vesalius dissections.

  • Copies of Vesalius work reached physicians in Britain.
• Inspiring anatomists:

  • Doctors were encouraged to do dissections themselves after Vesalius work.

  Vesalius is credited with inspiring other anatomists such as Fabricius and Fallopais.
• • Antony von Leeuwenhoek observed 'animalcules' under a microscope, even though he didn't know that they were bacteria.
  • Girolamo Fracastoro theorised that disease was caused by seeds spreading in the air, these ideas were close to the truth but had very little impact.