gender (psychology)

• what is sex?


  the biological and physiological state of being male, female or intersex, it's determined by our DNA
• what is gender?


  a psychological and cultural experience, gender is not binary like sex and can change over time
• who are the Guevedoces?

  a small community in the Dominican Republic where some males are born looking like girls and only grow penises at puberty
• what causes Guevedoces to be born looking like girls?


  they are deficient in the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase
• what role does the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase play in male development?

  it converts testosterone into dihydro-testosterone, which is crucial for penis development
• at what point in development does the tubercle turn into a penis normally?

  around 8 weeks after conception
• what happens at puberty for Guevedoces?

  they get a second surge of testosterone that triggers the physical aspects of being male
• how has the revelation of the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase impacted medical treatments?

  it has led to the development of drugs like Finasteride, which blocks the enzyme
• what conditions can Finasteride be used to treat?

  enlargement of the prostate and male pattern baldness
• what are sex role stereotypes?

  a set of characteristics and behaviours that are expected of different genders/sexes by society
• examples of sex role stereotypes

  men are: competitive, strong, play with weapons, aggressive

  women are: domestic, emotional, nurturing, caring
• where do sex role stereotypes come from?

  family, religion, adverts, schools, tv shows, etc.
• example of sex stereotypes in the media

  an ad from Philadelphia was banned for portraying a harmful stereotype of men, presenting them as careless with their baby due to being distracted by/ prioritising food
• describe Urbergs (1982) study into sex role stereotypes

  • told kids aged 3-7 yrs stories that stressed sex-role stereotypical characteristics e.g. bravery or caring
  • after each story the kids were asked whether it described a boy, girl or both
  • responses favoured sex role stereotypes
  • tendency for kids to attribute positive characteristics with their sex and negative ones with the opposite sex (peaks at 5yrs)
  • older kids showed an increasing tendency to see characteristics as both
  • results imply kids learn sex-role stereotypes at an early age, but they can change over time
• what was the focus of Seavy et al's (1975) study?


  the study focused on sex-role stereotypes
• how many adults participated in Seavy et al's (1975) study?


  60 adults participated in the study
• what were the three types of toys present in the room during Seavy's study?


  a ball (male toy), a doll (female toy), and a plastic ring (unisex toy) were present
• what behaviour did both male and female adults exhibit when they were told the baby was a girl in Seavy's study?


  both male and female adults gave the baby a doll when they were told it was a girl
• what was the tendency of adults when they believed the baby was a boy in Seavy's study?

  adults were more likely to give the baby a unisex toy if they thought it was a boy
• how did female adults behave when the baby's gender was unknown?

  they handled the baby more when its gender was unknown
• what did both genders try to assess when the baby's gender was unknown?

  both genders tried to assess the baby's gender based on its perceived strength
• what does Seavy et al's (1975) study suggest about adult reactions to babies based on perceived gender?

  • both males and females react differently to babies based on the gender they believe the baby to be
  • gender perceptions influence the type of toys given to babies
• strengths of studies into sex roles

  • it has practical application, may help us advise teachers in schools and nurseries on how to reduce them, benefits society
  • the methodology of both studies, they operationalised their dependent variable, makes the study more replicable and therefore more reliable
• weaknesses of sex-role stereotype studies

  • Seavy's study may be unethical, didn't tell them the aim and lied about the babies gender, breaks BPS guidelines on deception, means the study can't be repeated so not reliable
  • unclear whether the results of the study are due to nature or nurture, universally stereotypes are similar, means their may be a biological reason, means there's low validity as we can't be sure their conclusions are correct
• what is androgyny?

  when a person has a balanced mixture of typically 'masculine' and typically 'feminine' traits
• is androgyny seen as a positive concept?

  yes, as they posses the strengths of both genders and adapt their use of the traits according to the demands of a particular situation and they are thought to be less affected by gender role stereotypes and are therefore less likely to behave in a gender typical way
• what is the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)?

  • it's a measure of androgyny
  • developed by Sandra Bem in 1974
  • from a list of 200 stereotyped traits she got people to pick the 20 most desirable traits for women and 20 for men, then added 20 neutral items herself
  • participants then rate themselves for the 60 questions on a 7 point Likert scale
  • they then use the median of the group to assign a value to the 4 outcomes: androgynous, masculine, feminine, undifferentiated
• role of chromosomes in sex and gender

  • made from DNA
  • 46 chromosomes in humans, 23 pairs, the last pair (23rd) determines gender
  • female chromosomal structure = XX
  • male chromosomal structure = XY
• role of chromosomes in sex and gender

  • eggs carry the X chromosome
  • sperm carries an X or Y chromosome
  • the Y chromosome carries a gene called the 'sex-determining region Y' (SRY), which causes testes to develop in an XY embryo, the testes then produce androgens (male sex hormones)
• the role of hormones in sex and gender (testosterone)

  • male hormone, but present in women in small quantities
  • controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development
  • if a genetic female produces high levels of testosterone during foetal development, male sex organs may appear
  • from the androgen group, mainly produced in the male testes, small amounts produced in female ovaries
  • associated with aggressiveness by the evolutionary explanation that aggression allowed males to hunt and compete for a fertile mate
• the role of hormones in sex and gender (oestrogen)

  • primary female hormone, plays a role in the menstrual cycle
  • determines female sexual characteristics and mensuration
  • oestrogen causes some women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during the menstrual cycle
  • this is referred to as premenstrual tension (PMT) or premenstural syndrome (PMS) when these effects become a diagnoseable disorder
• the role of hormones in sex and gender (oxytocin)

  • women typically produce more oxytocin in much larger amounts than men, particularly as a result of giving birth
  • oxytocin stimulates lactation, allowing mothers to breastfeed
  • it reduces the stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding, for this reason it's referred to as the 'love hormone'
  • its released in massive quantities during labour and after labour and makes mothers feel 'in love' with their babies
• the role of hormones in sex and gender (oxytocin)

  • the fact men produce less oxytocin previously fueled stereotypes they're less interested in intimacy and closeness
  • but evidence suggests both sexes produce similar amounts during amours activities such as kissing and sexual intercourse
• animal research on testosterone

  • Young (1966)
  • gave male hormones, including testosterone, to female mice and female hormones to male mice
  • the effect was an irreversible change in usual gender-related behaviours
  • suggests hormones like testosterone have a key role in determining gender behaviour
  • testosterone may alter the sexually dimphoric nucleus (SDN) in the brain, as male rats had a larger SDN than females
• human study on testosterone

  • Money and Ehrardt (1972)
  • reported on a sample of girls whose mothers took drugs containing testosterone during pregnancy
  • the girls exhibited male-type behvaiours, e.g. playing energetic sports and an absence of female-type behaviours, like playing with dolls
  • this suggests that testosterone has a strong influence on gender behaviour
• animal study into oxytocin

  • Van Leengoed et al (1987)
  • injected an antagonist of oxytocin into female rats shortly after birth to inhibit oxytocin production
  • mothers treated in this way showed a delay in maternal behaviours such as picking up and grooming their pups
  • when the effects wore off normal maternal behaviour was seen
  • supports the idea oxytocin is involved in the promotion of maternal behaviour
• human research into oestrogen

  • Alonso & Rosenfield (2002)
  • reported that oestrogen is necessary for the normal development of body areas and tissues, like the neuroendocrine-gonadal axis, associated with puberty in males and females
  • supports the idea that oestrogen is associated with the transformation into being sexually active and able, not just in females but also males
• gender schema theory

  • cognitive theory of gender development
  • from 2 a child can label themselves as a boy or girl, this motivates them to seek out same sex behaviours
  • then children start to put together gender schemas of what 'girls are like' and vice versa
  • they actively seek out and sort information that they observe into boy and girl categories
  • they then start to understand gender specific behaviour
• gender schema theory (2-3 yrs old)

  • they start searching their environment for ideas that fit with their basic schemas and ignoring behaviour that doesn't fit their schema
  • e.g. notices a boy playing with a truck and that he's wearing trousers but doesn't notice the boy playing with a tea set
  • this then directs their behaviour
  • gender specific behaviour starts at this age whereas Kohlberg's theory says it starts at 7
• gender schema theory (4-6yrs old)

  • schemas become more complex with a wider range of behaviours and personality traits
  • schemas are now heavily stereotyped
  • their schema for their own gender (ingroup) is much more complex and developed than their schema for the other gender (outgroup)
  • children favouring their ingroup is a way to feel a sense of belonging and helps them to develop positive self-esteem and confidence