observational techniques

• covert observation


  • participants observed without their knowledge
  • observing natural, unmanipulated behaviour
• strength of covert observation


  high levels of validity
• limitations of covert observations


  can be unethical
• overt observation


  participants are aware of observation
• strength of overt observation


  more ethical than covert
• limitations of overt obervation


  • social desirability is likely
  • demand characteristics
• participant observation


  • researcher joins group and becomes involved with them
  • participants dont know who the observer is
• strengths of participant observation


  researcher build rapport with the participants
• limitations of participant observation


  • researcher may become bias
  • ethical considerations (deception)
• non-participant observation


  researcher remains separate from the participants
• strength of non-participant observation


  researcher is more likely to remain objective
• limitation of non-participant observation


  researcher is unable to build rapport with the participants