AQA A-level Psychology Attachment

• Ainsworth strange situation is observational method for testing strength of attachment between caregiver and infant
• Infants aged between 9-18 months were placed in novel situation of mild stress, namely unfamiliar room whereby they are left alone, left with stranger and reunited with their caregiver. Ainsworth observed how infants behaved through one-way mirror during set of eight different scenarios, each lasting 3 minutes observing:

  Separation anxiety

  Reunion behaviour

  Exploration behaviour

  Stranger anxiety
• Secure (66%): infants considered mother as safe-base. Moderate separation/stranger anxiety and showed joy upon reunion with mother
• Insecure-avoidant (22%): doesn’t use mother as safe-base. Low separation/stranger anxiety and avoided intimacy with mother upon reunion
• Insecure-resistant (12%): cling to mother and doesnt explore. High separation/ stranger anxiety. Rejects attempts of mothers comfort on reunion
• Evaluation: 1 weakness is that it lacks ecological validity. Observation was controlled, artificial setting unfamiliar to both parents and infant. Therefore, children may have acted differently to how they would act in more familiar environment, such as home. can’t represent it to rest of children in normal settings
• Evaluation: Overt in its design, parents knew they were being observed through one-way mirror and therefore may have displayed demand characteristics. Mothers may have been overly affectionate towards their children as they believed this is behaviour scenario demanded, lowering internal validity
• Evaluation: High reliability . Observations under strict and controlled methods using predetermined behavioural categories. Several observers watching and coding the same infant behaviours, agreement on attachment classifications could be ensured. Found 94% agreement between observers and when inter-observer/inter-rater reliability is assumed to high degree findings are considered meaningful
• Aim: to investigate cross-cultural variations in attachment
• Method: conducted meta-analysis of 32 studies from 8 different countries that used Ainsworth strange situation. Results of over 1990 infants were involved
• 3 key findings:

  1. Secure attachment was most common type of attachment, in all cultures examined
  2. Japan and Isreal (collectivist cultures) showed higher levels of insecure-resistant in comparison to other cultures
  3. Germany (individualist culture) showed higher levels of insecure-avoidant in comparison to other cultures
• Conclusion: Since global trend seems to reflect US norm of secure attachment being the most common, adds weight to argument that secure attachment is optimal attachment type for healthy development
• Evaluation: Sample was biased. 27/32 were carried out in individualistic cultures. Therefore, results are biased towards individualistic cultures norm and values so can’t accurately generalise results to collectivist cultures lowering population validity
• Evaluation: methodology was developed in America and therefore results may be culturally biased. Ainsworth strange situation may be more suitable for use solely with western cultures as it reflects their values and norms. Using methodology beyond sample is imposed etic. Matters because attachment behaviours mean different things for different cultures and so results may not be valid when used with samples from non-western cultures
• Deprivation occurs when attachment bond is formed between infant and caregiver but is broken later in life
• Ongoing maternal deprivation would have lasting negative effects on child in terms of their emotional development leading to possible mental health problems or maladjustment. Effects of maternal deprivation would be at their most acute during critical period, should emotional care not be provided, risk of adverse consequences up until 5 years of age
• Aim: early separation from primary caregiver was associated with behavioural disorders. Bowlby defined particular behaviour disorder as affectionate psychopathy (no shame of guilt)
• Method: Children, from 5-16 years old who had been referred to guidance clinic in London where Bowlby worked were examined. 44 if children were criminals and 44 non-criminal participants were used a control group. Bowlby interviewed the children and their families to create record of early life experiences
• Results: Bowlby identified 14/44 thieves as affectionless psychopaths. 86% (12/14) of these affectionless psychopaths had experienced early and prolonged deprivation. Only 17 of other thieves had experienced such separations and 4% of control group had experienced frequent early separations
• Conclusion: Findings suggest link between early separations and later social maladjustment. Maternal deprivation hypothesis appears to lead to affectionless psychopathy and antisocial behaviour
• Evaluation: Lewis replicated juvenile thieves study with larger sample of childern but dint find that early deprivation, caused by prolonged separation from primary caregiver, predicted greater likelihood factors may be involved which meditate consequences of maternal deprivation. Barrett found securely attached children are more resistant to negative effects of maternal deprivation in comparison to insecurely attached children
• Evaluation: Not making distinction clear between deprivation and privation. Rutted suggests that privation- not having had opportunity to form attachment at all- leads to more damaging consequences for child than experiencing broken attachment in early years. Ritter disapproved of Bowlby’s use of word deprivation for he believed he was confusing 2 concepts
• Evaluation: significant impact in best practices in institutions like hospitals where infants are likely to experience prolonged separation from caregiver. Visiting childern in hospitals was restricted, Robertsons observed 2 year old girl who was hospitalised for 8 days. Struggled to cope with emotional deprivation, demonstrating real distress. Key changes occurred since into Joe best to provide quality substitute emotional care in absence of parents to minimise negative consequences for child
• Aim: Examine the long-term effects of institutionalisation in longitudinal study
• Method: 165 children who had spent their early years in Romanian orphanage formed experimental group. 111 where adopted before age of 2, while remaining 54 were adopted by age of four. They were compared to control group of 52 British children, who were adopted before they were 6 months old. Social, cognitive and physical development of all infants was examined at regular intervals (4,6,11 and 15) and interviews with adoptive parents and teachers
• Results: Point of adoption, Romanian orphans showed delayed development on all elements. Physically smaller, weighed less on average and many were classified as mentally retarded. However, almost all Romanian orphans who were adopted before age of 6 months caught up these measures of development when compared to british control group. Romanian orphans adopted after 6 months old continued to show significant deficits in all elements. More likely to experience difficulties with making/maintaining peer relationships and were often categorised as disinhibited attachment disorder
• Conclusion: Institutionalisation can have long-term effects on development, especially if children aren’t provided with adequate emotional caregiving, i.e. adopted by 2 years old
• Evaluation: Real-world application to social services. Their study helped change the way children are looked after, especially when it comes to adoption process. Historically, mothers were encouraged to keep their babies from substantial period by which critical period for attachment formation may have passed. Nowadays, infants are adopted as early as one week old and singer et al states that children are as securely attached to their adoptive mothers and biologically related families. Demonstrates benefit of institutionalisation research to help improve lives of children
• Evaluation: Longitudinal study. Assessing both short-term and long-term of institutionalisation and subsequent benefits from adoption. Results appear to be valid representation of effects of being placed in institutional care as well as portraying results of receiving quality follow on emotional caregiving in timely manner
• Evaluation: Deprivation is only one factor in development. Orphans experienced very little or no mental stimulation and were often malnourished. Suggest there are multiple risk factors involved in ascertaining effects of institutional care. Difficult to interpret results of studies as sole effect of deprivation as there as many different influences that affected children such as living in poverty
• Aim: questionnaire termed “Love Quiz” designed to test IWM to assess if attachment type formed as infant influences friendships and adult relationships
• Procedure: 3 sections was published in local American newspaper and received 620 volunteer responses (205 males and 415 females). First section was designed to assess individuals most important relationship. Second section focuses on ascertaining general experiences in love and the third part asked self selecting participants about their feelings in relation to statements
• Findings: Found that 56% respondents were classified as attached, 25% with insecure-avoidant attachment types and 19% as being insecure-resistant. Positive correlation was found between early attachment and experienced in love with those reporting secure attachment in childhood being most likely to have loving and lasting romantic relationships. Insecure-avoidant attachment type from infancy dislike in intimacy. Insecure resistant shorter relationships, approximately 6 years, compared to secure respondents who averaged 10 years on average
• Evaluation: Zimmerman suggest infant attachment type classification and quality of relationships with parents during adolescence aren’t related. These findings don’t support role of IWM being important in development of childhood and adult relationship, casting doubt on emphasis placed on this concept by developmental psychologists like Bowlby
• Evaluation: Methodological issues with assessing attachment types retrospectively. Much research, such as “Love Quiz” by Hasan and Shaver rely upon self-report from adult participants about their memories from infancy and childhood. Recollection from years gone by are likely to be impaired lack accuracy due to deterioration which lowers internal validity of findings.
• Evaluation: Deterministic, impact of childhood and adult relationships have very set views on outcomes for future behaviour. e.g. infant with insecure attachment will be doomed to experience poor quality and unsatisfying relationships later in life as result of IWM. Suggest there is no room for an alternative path to unfold.