Russia and the Soviet Union

• What was Russia like in the early 20th century?


  - Vast - The Russian Empire covered 1/6 of the world's surface

  - Ruled by Tsar Nicholas II of the Romanov dynasty

  - Had a population of 125 million people

  - Faced a number of political, economic, social, religious and geographical problems which led to discontent and growing opposition which threatened the tsarist regime
• Reasons for discontent: Subject Nationalities


  - Russian empire was made up of more than 20 different peoples: Russia was a foreign language for 60% of these people who were known as subject nationalities

  - Many of these people resented being part of the Russian Empire due to the policy of 'Russification' whereby they were forced to speak Russian, wear Russian clothes and follow Russian customs

  - Russians were also often given the important jobs in non-Russian areas
• Reasons for discontent: the government

  - Russia was an autocracy. All power lay in the hands of the tsar who believed he ruled by divine right.

  - About 70% of the population were members of the Orthodox Church which was closely linked to the tsar and supported his way of ruling. They taught that he was God's chosen representative on earth.

  - The tsar's council of ministers ran various governmental departments, but could not make important decisions - civil servants carried out the day-to-day work of government, but were poorly paid. Bribery and corruption were rife.

  - Russian people had little freedom: trade unions and strikes were forbidden, newspapers and books were censored.

  - The tsar was determined to suppress all opposition using the Okhrana, his secret police.
• Reasons for discontent: Tsar Nicholas II

  - Nicholas II (tsar from 1894) was a weak and reluctant ruler

  - He insisted on governing as an autocrat and believed that divine right meant no one had the right to challenge him or his wife, the Tsarina Alexandra.

  - He was ignorant of the nature and extent of opposition to tsarist rule and refused to share power.
• Reasons for discontent: economic problems


  - 85% of the population lived in the countryside, however Russian agriculture was poor.

  - Extensive tundra, forest and desert meant that only about 5% of the land was used for farming.

  - In most villages, land was divided into three large fields with each household owning strips in these. This scattered strip farming system encouraged subsistence farming using primitive hand tools. These old-fashioned methods resulted in low food production and frequent famines e.g. 1892
• Reasons for discontent: Industrial development


  - Russia only industrialised in the late 19th century.

  - Manufacturing output was still very low at the beginning of the 20th century. Its size and undeveloped system of roads and railway, together with the absence of an effective banking system, all restricted the growth of industry.

  - Sergei Witte, Minister of Finance 1893-1903 set himself the huge task of modernising the Russian economy, inviting foreign experts and workers to advise on industrial planning. These did stimulate industrial growth, but led to poor living and working conditions in industrial cities.
• What were Russia's social problems?


  - Russian society was divided into different classes.

  - The vast majority were poor peasants, whilst at the other end of the scale, were the tsar, the aristocracy and the higher clergy.
• Russian society: The aristocracy


  - Made up just over 1% of the population yet owned c25% of the land.

  - Some were extremely rich, with lavish homes in the countryside, a second home in a town or city, and many servants.
• Russian society: The middle class


  - By 1914, Russia had a growing middle class who had emerged amid industrialisation.

  - Members of this class included bankers, merchants and factory owners.

  - This class often made their fortune from government contracts and loans and had a very pleasant lifestyle, eating out as expensive restaurants and visiting the theatre or ballet.
• Russian Society: The peasants


  - The largest and poorest group.

  - Life was very hard for most - they lived in poor conditions and survived on a staple diet of rye bread, porridge and cabbage soup.

  - Poor harvests frequently led to starvation and disease.

  - Life expectancy was less than 40 years old: many died of typhus and diphtheria.
• Russian society: the town workers


  - The most rapidly increasing group were the new industrial workers in the towns and cities.

  - Living conditions were terrible: workers lived in overcrowded slums and ate cheap black bread, cabbage soup and wheat porridge.

  - They earned low wages, working long hours and were forbidden from forming trade unions to fight for better conditions. Protests or strikes were crushed with great brutality by the police or army.