research methods

• What does the experimental method involve?


  The manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to observe its effect on the dependent variable (DV).
• What is the difference between a directional and non-directional hypothesis?


  A directional hypothesis states the direction of the impact of the IV on the DV, while a non-directional hypothesis does not.
• What are five types of sampling methods?

  • Opportunity sampling
  • Random sampling
  • Systematic sampling
  • Stratified sampling
  • Volunteer sampling
• How would you take a stratified sample?

  1. Identify the strata.
  2. Calculate the required proportion for each stratum based on the target population size.
  3. Select the sample at random from each stratum.
  4. Use a random selection method, e.g., a computer.
• What is one advantage of using a stratified sample?


  The sample is more representative of the target population compared to other sampling methods.
• What does operationalisation mean in research?

  Operationalisation is defining how a concept is measured, observed, or manipulated in a study.
• What is the difference between the independent variable (IV) and the dependent variable (DV)?

  The IV is manipulated to observe its effect on the DV, which is measured and affected by the IV.
• What is a solution to the problem of order effects in a repeated measures design?

  Counterbalancing, where half of the participants do conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order.
• What is the difference between the aim and the hypothesis of a study?


  The aim tells what the study investigates, while the hypothesis predicts the relationship between the IV and DV.
• What are the four types of experiments?

  • Laboratory experiments
  • Field experiments
  • Quasi-experiments
  • Natural experiments
• What is the purpose of carrying out a peer review?

  • Allocate research funding to worthwhile projects.
  • Ensure research quality and relevance.
  • Suggest improvements to prevent faulty data release.
• What are the two types of skewed distributions?

  • Positive skew: long tail on the right.
  • Negative skew: long tail on the left.
• What are two strengths of conducting a content analysis?


  • High mundane realism and external validity.
  • Produces a large dataset of qualitative and quantitative data that is easy to analyze.
• What are two limitations of a content analysis?


  • Causality cannot be established.
  • Cannot extract deeper meaning or explanation for data patterns.
• What are three limitations of conducting a case study?


  • Not generalizable to wider populations.
  • Relies on potentially unreliable memory in retrospective studies.
  • Time-consuming.
• What is the definition of reliability in research?


  Reliability is a measure of consistency in research findings.
• What are two ways of assessing the validity of research?

  • Face validity: determining if a measure appears to measure what it is supposed to.
  • Concurrent validity: checking how a new measure relates to an established one.
• What are the three factors that help decide which inferential statistical test to use?


  The three factors are the level of measurement, the number of groups being compared, and the distribution of data.
• What is face validity in research?


  It assesses whether a measure appears to measure what it is supposed to.
• How does concurrent validity assess a psychological measure?


  It checks the extent to which a new measure relates to an established one.
• If you are measuring depression with a new scale, what would you do to establish concurrent validity?


  You would have participants use an established depression measure as well.
• What are the three factors that help decide which inferential statistical test to use?


  The level of data, study design, and whether a difference or correlation is measured.
• What are the three levels of measurement in research?

  Nominal data, interval data, and ordinal data.
• How is nominal data characterized?


  It describes characteristics or groups without any ranking or order.
• Give an example of nominal data.


  Ethnicity, car brand, or place of birth.
• What distinguishes ordinal data from nominal data?


  Ordinal data can be ordered or ranked, while nominal data cannot.
• Provide an example of ordinal data.


  Political orientation or income level.
• What is interval data?


  Numerical data that does not have a meaningful zero point.
• Give an example of interval data.


  Credit ratings, temperature, or IQ scores.
• What is the difference between a single-blind procedure and a double-blind procedure?


  In a double-blind procedure, neither the researcher nor the participant knows the study details.
• What is an unstructured observation?


  An observation where everything the researcher sees is continuously recorded.
• How does structured observation differ from unstructured observation?


  Structured observation has a predetermined list of behaviors to quantify.
• How do correlations differ from experiments in research?


  Correlations measure variables without manipulation, while experiments involve manipulation.
• What are three measures of central tendency?


  Mode, median, and mean.
• What is the difference between primary and secondary data?


  Primary data is collected firsthand by the researcher, while secondary data is collected by others.
• What should a researcher consider when constructing a questionnaire?

  Clarity, analysis, and sequencing of questions.
• What is a strength of conducting an unstructured interview?


  It allows for in-depth data collection with more detail.
• How can unstructured interviews provide insight into participants' experiences?


  They can be tailored to individuals, allowing for deeper exploration.
• What are various types of observation in research?

  Naturalistic, controlled, overt, covert, participant, and non-participant.
• What are some ethical issues that research may present?

  Informed consent, deception, protection from harm, and privacy and confidentiality.