Week 2

• What is a fact in scientific terms?

  A statement about a direct observation of nature that is consistently repeated.
• How is a theory defined?


  A collection of statements that attempt to explain a set of observed phenomena.
• What is a hypothesis?


  A clear but tentative explanation for an observed phenomenon.
• What are the main functions of theories?


  • Define observed phenomena
  • Explain relationships among variables
  • Organize knowledge
  • Interrelate different concepts
• Give an example of a theory related to cognitive performance.


  Tiredness leads to poorer cognitive performance.
• What is an example of a hypothesis related to sleep and exam performance?


  Students who have had less than 8 hours sleep perform worse than those with 8 or more hours.
• What does it mean for a hypothesis to be falsifiable?


  It means the hypothesis can potentially be disproven.
• What is required for a hypothesis to be testable?


  A test must be designed to adequately test the hypothesis.
• What does it mean for a hypothesis to be precisely stated?


  All terms in the hypothesis must be clearly defined.
• What does rationality in a hypothesis refer to?


  It refers to whether the hypothesis is consistent with known information.
• What does parsimony mean in the context of a hypothesis?


  It means the explanation is the simplest possible.
• What is Occam’s razor?


  It is the principle that the simplest explanation is usually the correct one.
• What is the Hypothetico-Deductive Method?

  1. Observation
  2. Formulate Hypotheses
  3. Develop Theory
  4. Conduct Empirical Tests
  5. Analyze Results
  6. Refine or Abandon Theory
• What are constructs in scientific research?


  Building blocks of theories that serve as causal or descriptive explanations.
• What is a variable?


  Any characteristic that can assume multiple values.
• Why must variables be operational?


  Variables must be explicitly stated to be measurable.
• How do constructs and variables differ?


  • Constructs: Theoretical definitions (e.g., psychosis)
  • Variables: Operational definitions (e.g., score on a questionnaire)
• What is an example of a construct related to schizophrenia?


  Disintegration of personality expressed as disorder of feeling, thought, and conduct.
• What is an example of a variable related to course engagement?

  Retention of course material as assessed by an exam.
• What are the scales of measurement in research?

  • Nominal: Category membership
  • Ordinal: Ranked data
  • Interval: Equal increments, no true zero
  • Ratio: Equal increments, true zero
• What type of data is gender classified as?


  Nominal data.
• How is ordinal data characterized?


  Data can be ranked along a continuum, but intervals between ranks are not equal.
• What is interval data?


  Data where intervals between successive values are equal, but there is no true zero point.
• What is ratio data?


  Data with equal intervals and a true zero point.
• What is the difference between independent and dependent variables?

  • Independent Variable: Manipulated variable hypothesized to cause change.
  • Dependent Variable: Measured variable that is affected by the independent variable.
• What is an example of an independent variable in a study about alcohol and memory?


  The amount of alcohol consumed.
• What is an example of a dependent variable in a study about alcohol and memory?


  The score on a memory test.
• What are the two designs for assigning participants in experiments?

  • Between-subjects design: Participants exposed to one level of the IV.
  • Within-subjects design: Participants exposed to all levels of the IV.
• What is a between-subjects design?


  Participants are each exposed to one level of the independent variable.
• What is a within-subjects design?


  Participants are exposed to all levels of the independent variable.
• What are considerations for between-subjects designs?


  • Minimize effects of potential moderating variables.
  • Use random allocation to distribute variables equally.
• Why is random allocation important in experiments?


  It ensures each participant is equally likely to be assigned to any level of the independent variable.
• What is the purpose of using random allocation in experiments?


  To distribute potential moderating variables equally among experimental conditions.
• What are the considerations for within-subjects designs?


  • Keep potential moderating characteristics consistent.
  • Control for order effects.
• What is the purpose of measuring performance with and without music?


  To compare each participant's performance during music listening and in silence
• What is a within-subjects design?


  A design where the same participants are tested under all conditions
• What is a between-subjects design?


  A design where different participants are assigned to different conditions
• How can we minimize the effects of other variables in a study on driving errors?


  By spreading their influence across the different levels of the independent variable
• What does random allocation ensure in an experiment?


  Each participant is equally likely to be assigned to any independent variable level
• Why is randomization important in experiments?


  It distributes potential moderating variables equally among experimental conditions