Internal

• What did Becker find?


  Teachers judged students based on their 'ideal pupil - a student who followed the middle-class standards of behaviour such as being well-behaved and doing all their homework. As a result, teachers gave positive labels to the mc students because they fit this image. Whereas, wc students were given negative labels. These labels then became a self-fulfilling prophecy. Mc likely achieve and wc likely underachieve because they believe the labels are true and live up to them.
• Explain what is meant by 'symbolic capital'.


  Pupils who have been socialised at home into mc preferences and gain 'symbolic capital' - status - are deemed to have worth or value.
• What have studies shown a consistent pattern of?


  Mc education system devalues the experiences and choices of wc individuals as worthless or inappropriate.
• Labelling in secondary schools

  What did Dunne and Gazekey find?

  'schools persistently produce working-class underachievement'because of the labels and assumptions of teachers. 

  Teachers 'normalised' the wc underachievement and were unconcerned by it. Whereas if the student was a mc pupil they'd believe they could overcome the underachievement. A major reason for this difference was the teachers labelling wc parents as uninterested in their children's education, but labelled mc parents as supportive.
• What is self-exclusion?


  The wc marginalised by 'symbolic capital' - a barrier to success.
• What did Archer find?


  Wc thought that in order to be successful they needed to change the way they talked or presented themselves.
• What did Keddie find?


  Mc students are more likely to be put in the 'A' stream - with higher status and knowledge - while the wc were put into the 'c' stream and not given access to the knowledge required for educational success.
• According to Dunne and Gazekey, how did teachers deal with pupils they perceived as underachieving?


  They would set extension work for underachieving mc students but enter wc pupils into easier exams. Teachers also underestimated the wc and labelled those who had potential as 'overachievers'.
• Why do 'Nike' identities lead to a conflict in schools?


  They are labelled as rebels. This is because it goes against the school dress code.
• Suggest one reason why anti-school subcultures develop.


  Students in bottom sets often have low self-esteem and become anti-learning.
• Labelling in primary schools

  What did Rist find?


  He studied an American kindergarten and found that teachers used information about children's home backgrounds and appearance to place them in separate groups. Fast learners labelled 'tigers', tended to be of the middle class and had clean appearances. The others were put into two groups the 'cardinals' and the 'clowns' - they were seated further away while the tigers were placed closer to the teacher. The tigers got the greatest encouragement and the others were given lower-level books and had fewer chances to show their abilities.
• What are some criticisms of the labelling theory?

  • Not all students accept their labels: many reject them and work hard to prove their teachers wrong
  • Too deterministic - not all teachers label
  • Marxists have criticised labelling theory for ignoring the wider structures of power within which labelling takes place
  • Marxists argue that labels are not merely the result of teachers' prejudices, but stem from the fact that teachers work in a system that reproduces class divisions
• What did Gilborn and Youdell link to streaming?


  The policy of publishing exam league tables. The school then focuses resources on the pupils they see as having potential as a result of this - for the grades to boost the school's position on the league table.
• What is streaming?


  Students are taught in the same ability groups for all their lessons.
• Explain the difference between differentiation and polarization.

  Differentiation is a form of streaming eg - more able students = high stream and less able students = low stream.

  Polarization is a response to streaming, e.g. some students who are pro-school and some who form anti-school subcultures.
• What does 'symbolic violence' mean?


  The withholding of 'symbolic capital' to keep the lower class 'in their place'.
•  What is a Self-fulfilling prophecy?


  It is when students accept the label and act accordingly.
• Can you think of one example of the self-fulfilling prophecy?


  For example, a working-class student is labelled 'thick', he/she then puts no effort into his/her school work, resulting in underachievement. This is due to the student believing they are 'thick' and conforming to the label.
• Who coined the term self-fulfilling prophecy?


  The term was coined by Merton.
• What is teacher labelling? Who came up with this theory?

  Teacher labelling is when teachers attach a label or name on students based on stereotyped assumptions about their social class background, not their ability. Becker came up with this theory.

  Rist studied a kindergarten and found that the teacher labelled the fast learners 'tigers' and sat them next to her - these usually were children who looked neat and were mostly middle-class; while the others she'd label 'cardinals' or 'clowns' and would not give them her encouragement.
• What are pro and anti-school subcultures a response to?


  Streaming and labelling
• What are 'Nike' identities?

  Wc create self-worth for themselves by consuming brands.

  Archer talked about 'Nike' identities
• What did Gilborn and Youdell find that teachers use to stream pupils?


  Teachers use stereotypical notions of 'ability' to stream students. Wc and black are more likely to be in lower streams.
• Explain what is meant by 'habitus'.

  The ways of thinking by a particular social class.

  Bourdieu talks about this.
• What clash do working-class students often face?

  Wc identity and the habitus of higher education is a barrier to success.
• What is the educational 'triage'?

  The schools sort students into three categories; the passers, the ones with potential and the hopeless.

  Gilborn and Youdell argue that schools perform a triage (like nurses at A and E) categorising pupils into those who will achieve anyway (and therefore don't require too much input), hopeless cases (who would be a waste of effort) and borderline cases who require attention and input to get their 5 Cs at GCSE.