Observations

• Controlled observations


  1. Standardised environment - reserach takes place in a structured and artifical setting were varliable are highly controlled

  2. Manipulation of variables - researcers may manipulate independant variables to see cause and efect reltionship

  3. Systematic recording - data colection follows a specific procedure often using cheklists,coding sytem or recording devices
• Controlled observation strengths


  - High internal validity as research takes place in a controlled setting

  - Reliable as procedure is standardised and replicable

  - Reduced observer bias as observer is sticking to a script
• Controlled observation weaknesses


  - Low ecological validity as behaviours recorded may not reflect how people in real life act

  - Demand characteristics

  - Hawthorne effect

  - Limited range of behaviours - artificial environment may restrict the range of behaviours that can be studied
• Naturalistic observation


  - Occurs in a natural setting such as the subject's environment (such as home, school,workplace or natural habitat)

  - No manipulation of variables as researchers don't intervene as they only observe or record behaviours as they naturally occur
• Naturalistic observation strengths


  - High ecological validity as study reflects a real-life setting

  - Authentic behaviour as participants behave s they normally would
• Naturalistic observation weaknesses


  - May cost more

  - No control over extraneous variables
• Covert observations


  - The individual or group do not know they are being observed.

  - The researcher may be undercover.

  - Cameras may be used to record the behaviour as it

  happens.
• Covert observation strengths


  - Reduces the hawthorne effect resulting in more authentic, natural behavior.

  - Access to sensitive or hidden behaviours that might otherwise be concealed if participants were aware of being watched (such as criminal activities, group dynamics, or private social behaviours)
• Covert observation weaknesses


  - Lack of informed consent as participants do not know they are being observed, which raises concerns about privacy and the right to withdraw from the study.

  - Deception as the researcher may mislead participants about their role.
• Overt observations


  Participants are aware that they are being observed
• Overt observations strengths


  - Ethically strong as participants are not being deceived on nature of participant

  - Researcher can engage with participants
• Overt observations weaknesses


  - Knowledge of observations may influence on behaviour (demand characteristics)
• Participant observations


  Researcher joins in with the activities of participants
• Participant observations strengths


  - Validity increases as participants develop trust and a rapport with the researcher
• Participant observation weaknesses


  - Researcher bias may occur
• Non-participant observation


  The observer is separate from the people being observed
• Non-participant observation strengths


  - Mostly objective as the researcher is not actively involved with the group

  - Less ethical issues as obervations are mostly overt so consent is given
• Non-participant observation weaknesses


  - Demand characteristics may occur
• Inter-rater reliability


  Measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event
• How to create and asses reliability

  1. Create operationalised behavioural categories

  2. Two or more observers observe the behaviours independently

  3. The observers return and compare their results through percentage agreement (0.81 - 1.00 is an almost perfect agreement)
• Event sampling


  Researcher identifies specific behaviours or events of interest and records each occurrence
• Time sampling


  Observing and recording specific intervals of time rather than focusing on individual events or behaviours