A-level psychology memory

• What does coding refer to in memory studies?


  Coding refers to the format or ‘type’ of information stored in each memory store.
• How is coding different in short-term memory compared to long-term memory?


  Coding is acoustic in short-term memory and semantic in long-term memory.
• What did Baddeley's (1966) study demonstrate about memory recall?


  More mistakes are made when recalling acoustically-similar words immediately and semantically-similar words after 20 minutes.
• What is the capacity of short-term memory according to Miller?


  The capacity of short-term memory is thought to be 7 +/- 2 items.
• What is the significance of chunking in memory recall?


  Chunking helps us remember information by grouping it into manageable units, like 7 items.
• What did Jacobs demonstrate about letter and digit span?


  Jacobs found that the mean letter span was 7.3 and the mean digit span was 9.3.
• What is the duration of short-term memory?


  The duration of short-term memory is 18-30 seconds.
• How did Petersen et al (1959) demonstrate the duration of short-term memory?


  Petersen et al found that increasing retention intervals decreased recall accuracy of consonant syllables.
• What is the duration of long-term memory according to Bahrick et al (1975)?


  The duration of long-term memory is unlimited.
• What did Bahrick et al (1975) find regarding photo recognition over time?


  Bahrick et al found that photo recognition decreased from 90% to 70% between 15 and 46 years after graduation.
• What are the key issues with Jacobs' historical psychological research?


  • Lack of standardisation
  • Poor appreciation of scientific methods
  • Potential confounding variables affecting recall accuracy
• What is a strength of Bahrick et al's 1975 study?


  • Use of meaningful stimuli
  • High ecological validity
  • Findings can be generalized to real-life situations
• What are the key issues with Petersen et al and Miller et al studies?


  • Low mundane realism
  • Use of artificial stimuli
  • Limited generalizability to everyday learning experiences
• What recent research suggests about Miller's estimate of short-term memory capacity?


  Recent research suggests that the capacity of short-term memory is more similar to 4 chunks rather than 5-9 items.
• What does the multi-store memory model (MSM) represent?


  The MSM represents how memory is stored, transferred, retrieved, and forgotten.
• What are the three stores in the multi-store memory model?


  The three stores are sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
• What is the capacity and duration of the sensory register?


  The sensory register has a huge capacity but a duration of less than half a second.
• How does information pass from the sensory register to short-term memory?


  Information passes from the sensory register to short-term memory if we pay attention to it.
• What is the encoding type of short-term memory?


  Short-term memory is described as being acoustically encoded.
• What is maintenance rehearsal in short-term memory?


  Maintenance rehearsal is repeating new information to keep it in short-term memory.
• What must occur for information to be remembered from long-term memory?

  Retrieval must occur to transfer information back into short-term memory.
• What are the different types of long-term memory proposed by Tulving et al?


  • Procedural memory
  • Semantic memory
  • Episodic memory
• How does the multi-store model view long-term memory?


  The multi-store model views long-term memory as a single, unitary store.
• What is the difference between conscious and unconscious retrieval in long-term memory?


  Episodic and semantic memories must be recalled consciously, while procedural memories are recalled unconsciously.
• What did Petersen et al. find regarding the neurological basis of memory types?


  Petersen et al. found that semantic memories are recalled from the left prefrontal cortex and episodic memories from the right prefrontal cortex.
• What is the practical application of differentiating between types of long-term memory?


  • Understanding mild cognitive impairments
  • Targeted treatments for memory issues
  • Improved strategies for memory retention
• What distinction did Cohen and Squire make regarding memory types?


  Cohen and Squire distinguished between declarative (episodic and semantic) and non-declarative (procedural) memories.
• How do the cases of HM and Clive Wearing support the classification of long-term memory types?


  HM and Clive Wearing show that episodic memory can be impaired while procedural and semantic memories remain intact.
• What components make up the Working Memory Model (WMM)?


  The WMM includes the central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.
• What is the role of the central executive in the WMM?


  The central executive allocates tasks to the three slave systems and has a limited processing capacity.
• What does the phonological loop do in the WMM?


  The phonological loop processes auditory information and allows for maintenance rehearsal.
• What is the function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?


  The visuo-spatial sketchpad combines visual and spatial information to create a complete picture.
• What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad according to Baddeley?


  The capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad is around 4-5 chunks.
• What does the episodic buffer do in the WMM?


  The episodic buffer integrates all types of data processed by other stores and links STM to LTM.
• What are the criticisms of the central executive in the WMM?


  • Lack of precise definition
  • Vague term 'process'
  • Possible sub-components not identified
• How does Shallice and Warrington’s study of KF support the WMM?


  KF had poor STM recall for auditory stimuli but better recall for visual stimuli, supporting separate processing systems.
• What do studies of dual-task performance suggest about the central executive?


  Studies show decreased performance for simultaneous visual and verbal tasks, indicating limited processing capacity of the central executive.
• What did Braver et al's research demonstrate regarding the central executive?


  Braver et al found a positive correlation between cognitive load and activation in the prefrontal cortex, supporting the central executive's role.
• What is interference in the context of memory?


  Interference occurs when the recall of one memory blocks the recall of another, causing forgetting.
• What are the two types of interference?

  The two types of interference are retroactive and proactive interference.