Issues of diagnosis classification

• What is schizophrenia characterized by?

  A mental disorder characterized by serious disruptions in psychological functioning and a loss of contact with reality.
• What are the main symptoms of schizophrenia?

  • Auditory hallucinations
  • Visual hallucinations
  • Delusions
  • Thought control
• What are auditory hallucinations?


  Hearing things that are not real.
• What are visual hallucinations?


  Seeing things that are not real.
• What are delusions in the context of schizophrenia?


  Believing things that are not true, which can be rampant of grandeur or persecution.
• What does thought control refer to in schizophrenia?


  Believing their thoughts are being affected in some way, such as thought withdrawal, insertion, or broadcast.
• What are positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

  • Behaviors that are present but not seen in ordinary people.
  • Examples include hallucinations and delusions.
• What are negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

  • Behaviors that are missing but expected.
  • Examples include speech poverty, avolition, and flattening of affect.
• What is speech poverty in schizophrenia?


  It refers to a person speaking infrequently and lacking fluency.
• What does avolition mean in the context of schizophrenia?

  Apathy or lack of motivation to carry out tasks.
• What is flattening of affect?


  It refers to a person not showing emotional expression through facial gestures, body language, or eye contact.
• How can the onset of schizophrenia be classified?

  Onset can be acute or chronic.
• What is the difference between acute and chronic onset of schizophrenia?


  Acute onset means symptoms appear suddenly, while chronic onset involves gradual deterioration.
• What are the two main manuals used for diagnosing schizophrenia?

  • DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
  • ICD (International Classification of Diseases)
• What is a key difference between the DSM-5 and ICD in diagnosing schizophrenia?


  DSM-5 requires at least one positive symptom, while ICD requires two negative symptoms.
• What was the aim of Rosenhan's 1973 study?

  To investigate whether the 8 pseudopatients would be diagnosed based on their objective symptoms and behaviors.
• What were the results of Rosenhan's study?


  11 out of 12 admissions were diagnosed with schizophrenia, and symptoms stopped within 7-52 days.
• What does reliability refer to in the context of schizophrenia diagnosis?


  Reliability refers to the consistency with which the disorder is diagnosed.
• What did Copeland et al. (1971) find regarding inter-rater reliability?


  69% of US psychiatrists diagnosed schizophrenia, but only 2% of British psychiatrists did.
• What did Read (2004) find regarding test-retest reliability?


  Found concordance rates of only 38% for a second diagnosis by the same psychiatrists.
• What does validity refer to in the context of schizophrenia diagnosis?


  Validity refers to the appropriateness of the classification of schizophrenia.
• What did Cheniaux et al. (2009) find regarding criterion validity?


  Found poor criterion validity between manuals, with significant differences in diagnoses.
• What is one strength of the diagnosis of schizophrenia?

  • Current editions of DSM and ICD are more reliable.
  • Inter-rater reliability of .97 and test-retest reliability of .92 found by Osorio et al.
• What is a limitation of schizophrenia diagnosis related to co-morbidity?


  • Schizophrenia is commonly diagnosed with other conditions.
  • About 50% of those diagnosed with schizophrenia also have depression or substance abuse.
• What is a limitation of schizophrenia diagnosis related to gender bias?

  • Men are diagnosed with schizophrenia more commonly than women.
  • Women may be underdiagnosed due to having close relationships and support.
• What is a limitation of schizophrenia diagnosis related to culture bias?

  • Symptoms may have different meanings in different cultures.
  • British people of African-Caribbean origin are up to 4x as likely to receive a diagnosis compared to white people.
• What is a limitation of schizophrenia diagnosis related to symptom overlap?


  • Schizophrenia shares positive and negative symptoms with bipolar disorder.
  • This overlap makes it difficult to distinguish between the two conditions.