observational methods

• What is naturalistic observation?

  It involves the researcher observing naturally occurring behaviour.
• What is a controlled observation?


  It is when the researcher attempts to control certain variables.
• What are the differences between participant and non-participant observations?


  • Participant observation: Researcher engages with the group being studied.
  • Non-participant observation: Researcher observes without direct involvement.
• What is the difference between disclosed (overt) and undisclosed (covert) observations?


  • Disclosed (overt): Participants are aware they are being observed.
  • Undisclosed (covert): Participants are unaware they are being observed.
• What is the difference between structured and unstructured observations?


  • Structured: Experimenter controls extraneous variables to limit bias.
  • Unstructured: Experimenter has less control over extraneous variables.
• What are the strengths of naturalistic observations?

  Strengths:

  • Observed in natural conditions, limiting demand characteristics.
  • Applicable to real-life scenarios, increasing ecological validity.
  • Easily generalizable.
• What are the strengths of controlled observations?

  Strengths:

  • More controlled and accurate observations.
  • Easier to replicate.
  • Avoids ethical problems of consent.
• What are the strengths of non-participant observations?

  Strengths:

  • Objective and highly reliable.
  • Researcher can observe body language and make judgements.
  • Less likelihood of bias and no ethical issues if participants are aware
• What are the strengths of participant observations?

  Strengths:

  • Produces rich qualitative data, increasing validity.
  • More flexible and allows for open-mindedness.
  • Authentic data through personal experience
• What is a strength of overt observations?

  Strengths:

  • No ethical issues as participants give consent.
• What are the strengths of covert observations?

  Strengths:

  • High reliability and validity.
  • Avoids demand characteristics.
• What are the strengths of structured observations?

  Strengths:

  • Easier and more systematic data recording.
  • Likely to produce quantitative data for comparison.
  • Smaller risk of observer bias.
• What is a strength of unstructured observations?

  Strengths:

  • Produces more detailed results
• What is time sampling in observational research?


  • Observer records behaviors in a given time frame.
  • E.g., noting what a target individual is doing every 15 or 20 seconds.
• What is event sampling in observational research?


  • A target behavior or event is established.
  • Researcher records this event every time it occurs.
• What are behavioral categories in observational research?


  • Categories must be decided beforehand.
  • They should be objective, cover possible behaviors, and be mutually exclusive.
• What is observer bias?


  It occurs when an observer makes their own interpretation of the behavior they observe.
• What is ethnocentrism in observational research?


  It happens when the researcher makes value judgments about another culture from their own cultural system.
• What is inter-observer reliability?


  It is the extent to which a data collection tool produces similar data among observers.
• How can you increase reliability and validity in observational research?


  • Use an observation schedule.
  • Implement a double-blind technique.
  • Provide clear definitions of terms.
  • Conduct a pilot study.
• what are weaknesses of naturalistic observations?

  Weaknesses:

  • Difficult to control.
  • Ethical considerations.
  • Potential for observer bias.
• what is a weakness of unstructured observations?

  Weaknesses:

  • Greater risk of observer bias.
  • Produces qualitative data that is harder to analyse.
• what are weaknesses of structured observations?


  Weaknesses:

  • Results may lack depth and detail.
  • Important behaviours might be overlooked.
• what are weaknesses of covert observations?

  Weaknesses:

  • Raises ethical concerns due to lack of informed consent.
  • Deception is required.
  • Risk of illegal or dangerous activities.
• what are weaknesses of overt observations?

  Weaknesses:

  • Time-consuming.
  • Can increase demand characteristics.
  • Difficult to repeat and not always representative.
• what are weaknesses of participant observations?

  • covert participation observation raises ethical difficulties
  • very time consuming if done covertly
  • hard to generalise data from small sample sizes
  • risk of getting too involved and giving bias data
• what are weaknesses of non participant observation?

  • can lead to demand characteristics
  • time consuming
  • costly
  • may be hard to gain accurate results from a distance
• what are weaknesses of controlled observations?

  Weaknesses:

  • Increased demand characteristics if participants know they are observed.
  • Low ecological validity.