Becker argues that there is no such thing as a deviant act and that there 'deviant' behaviour is simply things that people label as such
Becker argues that whether a label is applied will depend on how an act is interpreted by an audience. for example swearing wouldn't be considered deviant in a pub or at a football game but would in a theatre or on a bus
Another example of where labelling would/wouldn't be applied to crime and deviance is a brawl involving young people. in a lower class area this may be define as delinquency, particularly by police, however, in a wealthy neighbourhood, it would be defined as youthful high spirts.
Becker identifies the stages of a label becoming a self fulfilling prophecy.
the individual is labelled as deviant and may be rejected from social groups.
this may encourage deviance - e.g. a drug addict may turn to crime because they're unable to get a job.
ex-convicts find it difficult to get jobs and may be forced to return to crime.
the deviant career is completed when individuals join an organised deviant group.
a deviant subculture develops, including norms and values that support deviant behaviour
Young studied hippie marijuana users in Notting Hill in London. He looks at how the police define and react to hippies and the effect this has on the group.
Young found that police saw hippies as scruffy, promiscuous and drug addicts and this label makes them feel different. as a reaction, they retreat from mainstream society into small closed groups which hold deviant norms and values. The self-fulfilling prophecy is created and the strong reaction to deviance makes it difficult for the hippies to reintegrate into society.
Lemert distinguishes between primary and secondary deviance.
Primary deviance - the initial criminal or deviant act
Secondary deviance - crime or deviance as a response to the social reaction. for example a person can't get a job because of their criminal record so steals as they can't afford to obtain goods in a legitimate way.
Goffman examined the treatment of patients in mental institutions. He suggested that deviance can be created from social reaction for example through the mortification process. What is this?
Mortification Process - an individual's identity is stripped away and replaced with a new one, in this case that of a criminal or deviant person.
Cicourel suggested that justice can be negotiated, and this is why most deviants come from working class backgrounds. the first stage is the decision by the police to stop and interrogate the individual. this is more likely if the individual appears to be a 'typical delinquent' or if their behaviour is suspicious. the second stage is that the young person is handed over to a juvenile delinquent officer. if they fit that officers view of a typical delinquent, the processing will likely continue.
Another way Cicourel suggests justice is negotiable is that middle class parents are more likely to be able to convince police to drop charges as their child is 'remorseful' or 'has a future'. an example of this is Brock Turner, who was given a significantly reduced sentence for Sexual Assault after his father suggested that his future shouldn't be destroyed over '20 minutes of fun'
Jones identified two main policy implications of labelling theory.
where possible, behaviour should be decriminalised. for example drug use is effectively legal in Portugal and the Netherlands.
when the law does have to intervene, it should avoid giving people a negative view of themself, e.g. condemn the act not the person.
Braithwaite identifies two types of shaming.
Disintegrative shaming - where not the only crime but the person who committed it are shamed and excluded form society.
Reintegrative shaming - label the crime as bad but not the person to avoid stigmatizing the criminal.
Cohen suggests youth subcultures are scapegoated as the cause for crime and deviance, and that they're painted as folk devils. this creates a moral panic and produces a snowballing effect called spiralling amplification where individuals who are labelled as deviant act that way.