2nd research methods

• What is an aim in research?


  A general statement about the purpose of the study
• What is a hypothesis?


  A precise, testable statement indicating the expected outcome of the investigation
• When is a hypothesis made in a study?


  At the outset of the study
• What are the two types of hypotheses in research?


  • Directional hypothesis: states the expected direction of results
  • Non-directional hypothesis: does not state the direction of results
• What is an independent variable?


  The variable directly manipulated by the researcher
• What is a dependent variable?


  The variable thought to be affected by changes in the independent variable
• What is an extraneous variable?


  Any variable that could affect the dependent variable other than the independent variable
• What is a confounding variable?


  A variable that changes systematically with the independent variable
• What are the categories of extraneous variables?


  • Participant variables: individual differences like intelligence, age, gender
  • Situational variables: factors like temperature, time of day
• What is the target population in research?


  The group of people the researcher is interested in studying
• What is the importance of a representative sample?


  It ensures the sample is not biased and has population validity
• What are the main sampling techniques?

  • Opportunity sampling: selecting anyone available
  • Volunteer sampling: participants select themselves
  • Random sampling: every individual has an equal chance of selection
  • Systematic sampling: selecting every nth person
  • Snowball sampling: referrals from initial participants
• What is sample bias?


  When some members of the target population are more likely to be chosen
• How can sample bias occur through sampling technique?


  It can occur due to elements of self-selection in the sampling method
• How can sample bias occur through the choice of target population?


  If certain populations, like western white males, are targeted
• How can sample bias occur through sample size?


  Small samples are more prone to bias and may not represent the majority
• What is stratification in sampling?


  • Specifying characteristics of subgroups in advance
  • Selecting from each group in the same proportions as in the target population
• What is internal reliability?


  The consistency of a measure used in an investigation
• What is external reliability?


  The ability to replicate the results of a study
• What is the split-half method?


  A method used to check internal reliability by comparing two halves of a measure
• What is the test-retest method?


  A method that uses correlation between two sets of scores to assess external reliability
• What are the ways to improve reliability?


  • Ensure researchers act consistently (inter-rater reliability)
  • Measure consistency over time (intra-rater reliability)
  • Train researchers
  • Use pilot studies
• What is validity in research?


  The extent to which a method or results measure what they are intended to measure
• What is internal validity?


  The extent to which a test measures what it is meant to measure
• What is external validity?


  The extent to which findings can be generalized to other settings or populations
• What are the types of validity?

  • Ecological validity: generalizability to other settings
  • Population validity: generalizability to other people
  • Temporal validity: generalizability to other times
• What is face validity?


  Whether a test appears to be valid on the surface
• What is concurrent validity?


  Whether a test has similar findings to other established tests
• What are demand characteristics?


  • Cues in the environment that invite participants to behave in a certain way
• What are investigator effects?


  • Aspects of the researcher's appearance or behavior that lead participants to behave a certain way
• What are social desirability effects?


  The tendency for individuals to present themselves in the best possible light
• How can validity be improved?


  • Control confounding variables
  • Use single-blind technique for demand characteristics
  • Use double-blind technique for experimenter bias
  • Use counterbalancing for order effects
• What is a pilot study?


  • A small-scale study conducted to identify problems in research methods
  • Helps ensure the actual experiment runs smoothly
• What are the ethical issues in research?


  • Informed consent: participants must be fully informed
  • Deception: must not mislead participants
  • Protection of participants: from physical and mental harm
  • Privacy and confidentiality: maintain confidentiality of data
• What is informed consent?


  Participants must be made aware of anything that may influence their willingness to participate
• How should deception be handled in research?


  Participants should be given a full debrief at the end of the study
• What is the role of the Data Protection Act in research?


  To maintain confidentiality of individuals about whom data is collected
• What are the features of science?

  • Objectivity: not based on opinion or emotion
  • Replicability: ability for procedures to be repeated
  • Falsifiability: ability to be proven false
• What are the steps in the scientific process?


  1. Identify a problem
  2. Develop a hypothesis
  3. Devise a study to test the hypothesis
  4. Analyze and evaluate the results
  5. Modify and repeat the process
  6. Develop a theory
• What are paradigms in science?


  • A shared set of assumptions about a discipline
  • Stages of scientific development: pre-science, normal science, revolutionary science