issues and debates

• What is gender bias in psychology?


  It refers to psychological theory not representing the experiences and behaviors of both men and women.
• What is alpha bias?


  Alpha bias exaggerates or overestimates the differences between the sexes.
• Give an example of alpha bias in psychology.


  The sociobiological theory of relationship formation suggests males try to impregnate as many females as possible.
• What did Freud say about femininity?


  Freud claimed that femininity is failed masculinity.
• What is beta bias?

  Beta bias ignores or underestimates the differences between the sexes.
• Provide an example of beta bias in psychological research.


  Kohlberg’s theory of moral development was based on a male sample yet deemed universal.
• What is androcentrism?


  Androcentrism judges females by a male standard of normal due to research.
• How can gender bias affect women's opportunities in the workplace?


  It may give scientific justification to deny women opportunities.
• What is the humanistic approach's view on free will?


  It posits that humans are free to choose their thoughts and actions.
• What is hard determinism?


  Hard determinism states that our actions are dictated by uncontrollable forces.
• What is soft determinism?


  Soft determinism acknowledges determining forces but allows for conscious control over behavior.
• What is biological determinism?


  Biological determinism suggests we are controlled by physiological, genetic, and hormonal processes.
• What does environmental determinism imply?


  It implies that our behavior is determined by conditioning and experiences.
• What is psychic determinism according to Freud?


  Psychic determinism states that our behavior is directed by unconscious conflicts.
• How does the nature-nurture debate relate to the understanding of human behavior?


  It explores whether human characteristics are innate or shaped by the environment.
• What do nativists believe in the nature-nurture debate?


  Nativists believe human characteristics are innate and hereditary.
• What is the general figure for IQ heritability?


  The general figure for IQ heritability is 0.5.
• What do empiricists argue about the mind at birth?


  Empiricists argue that the mind is a blank slate at birth.
• What is interactionism in psychology?


  Interactionism suggests that behavior is affected by both innate temperament and environmental responses.
• What is the diathesis-stress model?


  It posits that mental disorders are caused by a combination of vulnerability and stressors.
• How does epigenetics affect genetic activity?


  Epigenetics involves changes in genetic activity without altering the DNA code.
• What was the experiment with male rats and electric shocks meant to demonstrate?


  It showed that offspring can develop fear responses based on parental experiences.
• What is constructivism in the context of nature-nurture interactions?


  Constructivism suggests that individuals create their own nurture based on their nature.
• What are the three types of gene-environment interactions?


  Passive, evocative, and active interactions.
• What does holism in psychology advocate?


  Holism advocates studying people and behavior as a whole system.
• Why is studying behavior in a group context important?


  Some behaviors cannot be understood when studied individually, as shown in the Stanford prison study.
• What is reductionism in psychology?


  Reductionism involves breaking down behavior into constituent parts.
• What is the hierarchy of science in reductionism?


  The hierarchy includes sociology, psychology, biology, chemistry, and physics.
• What is biological reductionism?


  Biological reductionism focuses on physiological and neurochemical levels of behavior.
• What is environmental reductionism?


  Environmental reductionism focuses on behaviorist stimulus-response links.
• What is the idiographic approach in psychology?


  The idiographic approach aims to describe the unique individual through individual studies.
• What is the nomothetic approach in psychology?


  The nomothetic approach aims to produce general laws for comparison and predictions.
• What is a limitation of the idiographic approach?


  It relies on subjectivity and cannot make meaningful generalizations.
• What is a limitation of the nomothetic approach?


  It can lose the individual perspective by treating participants as mere scores.
• What are ethical implications in psychological research?


  They arise when there is a conflict between the need for valid results and the rights of participants.
• What is socially sensitive research?


  Research that has potential social impacts on participants or groups.
• What are some concerns regarding socially sensitive research?


  Concerns include implications, public policy, and the validity of research findings.
• How can socially sensitive research lead to greater understanding?


  It can reduce prejudice and promote open-mindedness in research.
• What is the role of ethics committees in psychological research?


  They weigh the costs and benefits of research to protect participants' rights.
• What did Milgram's studies reveal about ethical considerations?


  Milgram could not predict the potential damage of his study due to lack of ethics committees at the time.