issues and debates

• What is gender bias?


  The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences.
• What is alpha bias?


  A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, suggesting real and enduring differences.
• What are the consequences of alpha bias?


  Theories may devalue one gender in comparison to the other, typically devaluing women.
• What is an example of alpha bias in psychodynamic explanations for offending behavior?


  Freud suggested females are less moral than males due to not experiencing castration anxiety.
• How does Wilson’s sociobiological theory illustrate alpha bias?


  It suggests sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, while promiscuous females go against their nature.
• What does Cotton et al. suggest about the diagnosis of schizophrenia in women?


  Women may be diagnosed less frequently because their symptoms are less severe or masked by their ability to maintain relationships.
• What is androcentrism?


  The consequence of beta bias where behavior is compared according to a male standard, neglecting women.
• How has PMS been criticized in terms of androcentrism?


  It is seen as a social construction that trivializes female emotion, particularly anger.
• What is an example of beta bias in research on fight or flight response?


  Research typically used male animals, assuming findings applied equally to females, ignoring hormonal differences.
• What is beta bias?


  A tendency to ignore or minimize differences between men and women.
• How did Kohlberg’s levels of moral reasoning illustrate beta bias?


  It was developed based on studies of American males and generalized to both genders.
• What is the aim of universality in psychological theories?


  To develop theories that apply to all people, regardless of their differences.
• What does feminist psychology argue about difference psychology?


  It argues that socially determined stereotypes contribute more to perceived differences than biological explanations.
• How can androcentrism be countered according to feminist psychology?


  By acknowledging differences and developing suitable training programs to create more women leaders.
• What did Rosenthal (1966) find about gender bias in research methods?


  Male experimenters were more pleasant to female participants, affecting their performance.
• What is the implication of fewer women in senior research positions?


  Female concerns are less likely to be reflected in experimental questions.
• How does Eagly and Johnson's research challenge laboratory settings in psychology?


  They found that studies in real settings showed men and women were judged as more similar in leadership styles.
• What is reverse alpha bias?


  The development of theories that emphasize women's strengths over men's.
• What did Cornwell et al. (2013) find about women's learning abilities?


  Women are better at learning because they are more attentive, flexible, and organized.
• How has beta bias benefited women in society?


  It has allowed women greater access to educational and occupational opportunities.
• What is a potential downside of arguing for equality in terms of beta bias?


  It may draw attention away from women's special needs, such as biological demands of pregnancy.
• What does Darwin’s theory of sexual selection suggest about gender roles?


  It portrays women as choosy and males as competitive for selection.
• How has the view of female competition changed according to recent findings?

  Women are found to be equally competitive when needed, challenging previous stereotypes.
• What is cultural bias?


  The tendency to judge all cultures and individuals based on one's own cultural assumptions.
• What is cultural relativism?


  The view that behavior and morals cannot be judged properly without considering the culture in which they originate.
• How did Milgram’s study illustrate cultural relativism?


  It showed different obedience rates in Spanish and Australian participants compared to American participants.
• What is an example of alpha bias in cultural psychology?


  The assumption of real differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures.
• What did Takano and Osaka find regarding individualistic and collectivist cultures?


  14 out of 15 studies did not support the common view about differences in conformity.
• How do IQ tests illustrate beta bias in cultural psychology?


  They assume that the Western view of intelligence applies equally to all cultures, ignoring cultural differences.
• What is ethnocentrism?


  The tendency to evaluate other cultures using the standards of one's own culture.
• How can indigenous psychologies counter ethnocentrism?


  By developing different theories in different countries that reflect local cultures.
• How does Ainsworth’s Strange Situation illustrate cultural bias?


  It judged German mothers as cold based on American standards of attachment, ignoring cultural differences.
• What is the emic-etic distinction?


  The emic approach emphasizes cultural uniqueness, while the etic approach seeks universal aspects of behavior.
• What did Smith and Bond find regarding cultural bias in research methods?


  66% of studies were American, indicating institutionalized cultural bias in psychology.
• What were the consequences of cultural bias in the US army IQ test?


  It led to stereotyping and discrimination against European immigrants based on their IQ scores.
• What did Ekman et al. demonstrate about universal behaviors?


  Facial expressions for anger, guilt, and disgust are universally recognized across cultures.
• How do interactional synchrony and reciprocity relate to universal behaviors in attachment?


  They are universal features of infant-caregiver interactions.
• What is the significance of increased opportunities for cross-cultural research?


  It allows for a greater understanding of other cultures and reduces ethnocentrism in psychology.
• What is determinism in psychology?


  The belief that behavior is controlled by external or internal factors beyond an individual's control.
• What are the three types of determinism?

  Biological, environmental, and psychic determinism.