process

• transcription steps

  1. rna poly breaks dna hydrogen bonds via helicase
  2. rna poly goes downstream adding comp rna nucleotides
  3. pre mrna is made
  4. pre mrna undergoes rna processing
  5. methyl cap is added on 5' and poly a tail on 3' for stability and protection
  6. mrna is made
• translation steps

  1. mrna attaches to ribosome
  2. ribosome read mrna and attach comp trna anticodons
  3. trna anticodons release amino acids
  4. protein is made
• protein secretory pathway

  1. protein made on ribosome of rough er is transported to lumen
  2. lumen will modify (fold into shape) and package protein into transport vesicle
  3. transport vesicle goes to golgi and golgi further modifies and packages into secretory vesicle
  4. secretory vesicle leaves and travels to pm which will bind and release contents via exocytosis
• crispr cas 9


  1. cell transfected with crispr cas 9 and grna
  2. guide rna is created comp to the bases of specific DNA sequence
  3. grna binds to comp DNA sequence
  4. crispr binds and cuts both strands at PAM site
  5. knock in used for repair and knock out is used for disabling a gene
• gel electro


  1. fragments are cut
  2. frags placed in well at one end with gel, place in ph bath and power source attached
  3. power source switched on with positive side at the end and neg at the start
  4. DNA frag will move towards pos and smallest will move the furthest
• PCR


  1. denaturing at 95 for 2 mins to break hydrogen bonds between dna strands
  2. Annealinng at 55 for 2 min,l add primers
  3. Extension at 72 for 1 min, the DNA poly will move down primers andl add free nucleotides complementary to the dna sequence and creates 2 copies 
  4. Repeat process until desired amount 
• Making recombinant plasmids


  1.  Bacteria walls are ruptured 
  2. Dna of plasma is cut with restriction enzyme 
  3. Foreign dna is cut with same restriction enzyme 
  4. Foreign dna and plasma is mixed and then dna ligase is added so it can permanently be joined 
  5. Recombinant plasma is produced 
• biomass


  1. Break biomass into smaller pieces
  2. Add enzymes to break down starch polymers in biomass to monomers
  3. An anaerobic environment with yeast to ferment biomass
  4. Remove any pollutants with molecular sieve to produce biofuel.
• phagocytes 


  1. identify through a receptor on antigen and engulfed
  2. the pathogen is enclosed by phagosome
  3. lysosomes fuse with phagosomes and release digestive enzymes to destroy
  4. waste is secreted via exocytosis
• inflammation

  1. cut to skin causes mast cells to release histamine
  2. arterioles area to vasodilate more blood supply to cut and make capillaries permable
  3. blood clot forms
  4. bacteria engulfed by phagocytes and neutrophills
  5. skin heals and infection disappears
• allergy

  1. allergen enters body and detected
  2. plasma cells make ige antibody and binsd to mast cells
  3. allergen re-enters
  4. allergen binds to IgE antibody on mast cell
  5. mast cell activated and degranulates causing histamine to release
  6. histamine increases blood flow, and increase in permeability of blood vessels.
  7. symptoms include: runny nose, coughing, sneezing