lec8

• What is microbiology the study of?


  Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms.
• What types of organisms are included in microbiology?


  Microbiology includes bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
• How can microorganisms interact with humans?


  Microorganisms can be beneficial or pathogenic to humans.
• What are the structural differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?


  • Prokaryotes: Single-celled, lack a nucleus (e.g., bacteria).
  • Eukaryotes: Can be single-celled or multicellular, have a nucleus (e.g., fungi, protozoa).
• What is an example of a single-celled prokaryote?


  Escherichia coli.
• What type of pathogen is HIV?


  HIV is an acellular pathogen.
• What is an example of a eukaryotic organism?


  Candida is an example of a eukaryotic organism.
• What does immunology study?


  Immunology studies the body's defense mechanisms against microbial invasion.
• What are the two key branches of the immune system?

  • Innate Immunity: Non-specific and rapid response.
  • Adaptive Immunity: Specific and slower response.
• What comprises innate immunity?

  Innate immunity includes physical barriers, chemical mediators, and immune cells.
• What is the role of B cells in adaptive immunity?


  B cells produce antibodies that neutralize pathogens.
• What is the primary immune response?


  The primary immune response is the initial response to a new pathogen.
• What characterizes the secondary immune response?


  The secondary immune response is faster and stronger due to immunological memory.
• What are virulence factors?


  • Toxins, enzymes, and molecules that help pathogens infect the host.
  • Example: Staphylococcus aureus secretes toxins that damage tissues.
• How do some bacteria evade the immune system?


  Some bacteria produce capsules that inhibit phagocytosis.
• What is oxidative stress?


  Oxidative stress is an imbalance between reactive oxygen species and antioxidants.
• What are key biochemical mechanisms in disease?


  • Enzyme deficiencies (e.g., PKU).
  • Oxidative stress.
  • Protein misfolding (e.g., Alzheimer's).
  • Aberrations in cellular signaling pathways (e.g., RAS oncogene mutations).
• What is an example of a disease caused by enzyme deficiency?

  Phenylketonuria (PKU).
• What is the effect of botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum?


  Botulinum toxin inhibits neurotransmitter release, leading to paralysis.
• What are some therapeutic interventions derived from immunology and biochemistry?


  • Vaccines: Stimulate immune recognition.
  • Antibiotics and antivirals: Target microbial components.
  • Biological therapies: Monoclonal antibodies (e.g., Herceptin).
  • Enzyme replacement therapy: Compensate for deficient enzymes.
• What is the purpose of vaccines?

  Vaccines stimulate the immune system to recognize specific pathogens.
• What do antibiotics target?


  Antibiotics target specific microbial components like bacterial cell walls.
• What is enzyme replacement therapy used for?


  Enzyme replacement therapy is used for genetic diseases like Gaucher's Disease.
• Why is the integration of microbiology, immunology, and biochemistry important?


  • It helps understand disease mechanisms.
  • It aids in developing effective treatments.
  • Clinicians can better diagnose and prevent diseases.