Behavioural

• What is classical conditioning?

  A learning process where a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.
• How does classical conditioning occur?

  By consistently pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
• Who is credited with discovering classical conditioning?

  Ivan Pavlov.
• What did Pavlov observe in his research regarding stimuli?

  Animals salivated not only at food but also at stimuli associated with food, like a food bowl.
• What does reinforcement mean in the context of behavior?

  Reinforcement refers to something in the environment that strengthens a particular behavior.
• What are the two main types of reinforcers?

  The two main types of reinforcers are positive and negative reinforcers.
• How does positive reinforcement work?

  Positive reinforcement occurs when behavior produces a satisfying or pleasant consequence for the organism.
• How do negative reinforcers function?

  Negative reinforcers work by removing something aversive, restoring the organism to its 'pre-aversive' state.
• What are the schedules of reinforcement?

  • Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing every instance of a behavior.
  • Partial reinforcement: Reinforcing behavior intermittently (e.g., every third lever press).
• What is the effect of a continuous reinforcement schedule?

  A continuous reinforcement schedule is most effective in establishing a particular response.
• What is the effect of a partial reinforcement schedule?

  A partial reinforcement schedule is more effective in maintaining a response and avoiding extinction.
• What does punishment refer to in behavioral terms?

  Punishment refers to a consequence that is undesirable or unpleasant for the organism.
• How does reinforcement differ from punishment?

  Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior recurring, while punishment decreases it.
• What are the two types of punishment?

  The two types of punishment are positive punishment and negative punishment.
• What is an example of negative punishment?

  Grounding a naughty teenager is an example of negative punishment.
• What is reinforcement?

  Something in the environment that strengthens a particular behaviour, making it more likely that it will occur
• What was the Skinner box used for in his research?

  It was used to manipulate the consequences of behavior and measure effects on the rat's behavior.

  • presses lever- administers food pellet, rewarding, makes it more likely the rat will repeat behaviour
  • presses lever- administers electric shock, rat will avoid lever to maintain pre-aversive state
• What criticism has been directed at Skinner's research?

  Critics argue that his reliance on non-human animals limits the applicability of his findings to human behavior because they don't have free will
• What is Skinner's argument regarding free will?

  Skinner argued that free will is an illusion and that behavior is guided by external influences.
• evaluation of the behaviourist approach?

  • 😊 CC can be applied to therapy- for example systematic desensitisation in replacing a feared response with relaxing one for eliminating phobias (McGrath et al- successful for 75% of people)
  • ☹️ non human animals used- unlike humans, they don't have free will, although Skinner claims this is an illusion
  • 😊 reliance on experimental method- causal relationships can be examined under controlled conditions, eg Skinner investigating a partial versus continuous reinforcement schedule, improves accuracy, objective method, replicable
  • ☹️ environmental determinism- assumes behaviour is only learned, but can be inherited eg- delinquency is linked in families through genes like MAOA gene