memory

• What are the two main types of memory discussed in the study material?

  Short-term memory and long-term memory
• What are the key features of short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)?

  • STM: Limited duration and capacity, mainly acoustic coding
  • LTM: Longer duration, larger capacity, mainly semantic coding
• What did Baddeley's research find about coding in STM and LTM?

  STM uses acoustic coding, while LTM uses semantic coding
• What is a limitation of Baddeley's study on coding?

  It used artificial stimuli, such as word lists with no personal meaning
• What was Jacobs' finding regarding digit span?

  1. 3 digits and 7.3 letters
• How does chunking affect memory capacity according to Miller?

  Chunking extends the span of memory to 7 ± 2 items
• What is a criticism of Miller's findings on memory capacity?

  Miller overestimated STM capacity, suggesting only four chunks
• What did Peterson and Peterson find about the duration of STM?

  About 18 seconds without rehearsal
• What were the findings of Bahrick et al regarding the duration of LTM?

  Face recognition was 90% and free recall was 60% after 15 years
• What is a limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study on STM duration?

  It used meaningless stimuli, lacking external validity
• How did Bahrick et al's study differ from Peterson and Peterson's study?

  Bahrick et al used meaningful materials, leading to better recall
• What are the three stores in the multi-store model of memory (MSM)?

  1. Sensory register
  2. Short-term memory (STM)
  3. Long-term memory (LTM)
• What is the role of the sensory register in the MSM?

  It has modality-specific coding and a very brief duration
• How is information transferred from sensory register to STM?

  By attention
• What is the main coding method used in STM according to the MSM?

  Mainly acoustic coding
• What is a counterpoint to the MSM regarding the use of materials in studies?

  Studies often do not use everyday materials, leading to low ecological validity
• What do studies of visual and auditory materials suggest about STM?


  There are different STM stores for visual and auditory material
• What are the three types of long-term memory?

  1. Episodic memory: Events in our lives, time-stamped
  2. Semantic memory: Knowledge of the world, like an encyclopedia
  3. Procedural memory: Skills and unconscious processes
• What clinical evidence supports the distinction between types of long-term memory?

  Clive Wearing and HM had damaged episodic memories but preserved semantic and procedural memories
• What is a counterpoint to the clinical evidence regarding long-term memory types?

  Clinical studies lack control of variables, such as memory before injury
• What did Tulving et al find regarding the brain regions associated with memory types?

  Semantic memory is linked to the left prefrontal cortex, and episodic memory to the right hemisphere
• What is the theory behind the working memory model (WMM)?

  • Dynamic processing in short-term memory
  • Involves multiple subsystems for different types of information
• What is the function of the central executive in the WMM?

  It supervises and allocates subsystems to tasks
• What does the phonological loop (PL) do in the WMM?

  It processes auditory information and has a capacity of about 2 seconds of speech
• What are the two components of the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)?

  Visual cache and inner scribe
• What is the role of the episodic buffer in the WMM?

  It integrates data from subsystems and records the order of events
• What clinical evidence supports the WMM?

  KF had poor auditory memory but good visual memory, indicating separate systems
• What did Baddeley et al find regarding dual-task performance?

  It is difficult to perform two visual tasks simultaneously, but one visual and one verbal task is manageable
• What is a limitation of the central executive in the WMM?


  Its nature is not well specified and needs to be more than just 'attention'
• What is a criticism of the validity of the WMM model?

  Dual-task studies are highly controlled and use artificial tasks
• What are the two types of interference in forgetting?

  1. Proactive interference: Old memories disrupt new memories
  2. Retroactive interference: New memories disrupt old memories
• What did McGeoch and McDonald find about the effects of similarity on interference?

  Similar words created more interference
• What real-world evidence supports the concept of interference in forgetting?

  Rugby players remembered less due to interference from games played
• How does misleading information affect eyewitness testimony (EWT)?

  It can alter a person's memory of an event
• What did Loftus and Palmer find regarding leading questions?

  Speed estimates were affected by leading questions like "smashed" or "contacted"
• What are the two explanations for why leading questions affect EWT?

  Response bias and substitution explanation
• What are the steps of the cognitive interview (CI)?

  1. Report everything
  2. Reinstate the context
  3. Reverse the order
  4. Change perspective
  5. Enhanced cognitive interview (ECI) adds social dynamics
• What did Kähnken et al find regarding the effectiveness of the CI?

  CI produced 41% more accurate recall than standard interviews
• What is a counterpoint to the effectiveness of the CI?

  CI can increase inaccurate information, especially with ECI
• Which elements of the CI produced the best recall according to Milne and Bull?

  Report everything and reinstate the context used together