psychopathology: psychology paper 1

• Explain what is meant by a phobia

  1. An anxiety disorder.
  2. When a person feels a persistent, irrational fear towards an object/situation.
  3. To reduce this feeling of fear, they avoid their phobic stimulus/situation to the point it is considered maladaptive i.e. disruptive to their everyday life.
• Explain what is meant by behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of a disorder.

  • Behavioural = how a person with the disorder behaves.
  • Emotional = how a person with the disorder feels.
  • Cognitive = how a person with the disorder thinks.
• Outline two behavioural characteristics of phobias.

  Avoidance – the person will refuse to go near their phobic stimulus/situation. This is to the extent that it is maladaptive to their everyday life. 

  Panic – the person will show panic behaviours such as screaming, crying or fainting when in the presence of their phobic stimulus. This is considered an extreme/disproportionate reaction
• Outline two emotional characteristics of phobias.

  Fear – the person will feel a persistent feeling of fear when in the presence of their phobic stimulus. This fear is considered irrational.

  Anxiety – the person will worry when anticipating being in the presence of their phobic stimulus. This can be maladaptive in that it may cause difficulties sleeping.
• Outline two cognitive characteristics of phobias.

  Thoughts that the phobic stimulus will cause them harm. This is considered irrational as the phobic stimulus/situation is typically not harmful.

  The person recognises that their phobia is excessive in that it is unlikely to cause them real harm. However, this fails to reduce their feelings of fear and anxiety.
• What does the two-process model propose as the explanation for phobias?

  Phobias develop through classical conditioning and are maintained through operant conditioning.
• How does classical conditioning contribute to the development of phobias?

  An individual learns to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that produces fear.
• What is an example of a neutral stimulus in the context of phobia development?

  Dogs can be a neutral stimulus that becomes phobic.
• What is the unconditioned stimulus in the example of developing a phobia of dogs?

  Being bitten is the unconditioned stimulus that produces fear.
• What is the conditioned response when a neutral stimulus becomes a phobic stimulus?

  The conditioned response is fear.
• What does fear generalization mean in the context of phobias?

  Fear generalization occurs when an individual fears similar objects or situations.
• How are phobias maintained according to the two-process model?

  Phobias are maintained through operant conditioning by negatively reinforcing avoidance behavior.
• What happens when a person avoids their phobic stimulus?

  They negatively reinforce their phobia by removing the unpleasant feeling of fear.
• What is the consequence of continually avoiding a phobic stimulus?

  It makes it likely that the person will continue avoiding the stimulus, preventing fear extinction.
• What are the key components of the two-process model in explaining phobias?

  • Development through classical conditioning
  • Association of neutral stimulus with unconditioned stimulus
  • Resulting conditioned phobic stimulus
  • Maintenance through operant conditioning
  • Negative reinforcement of avoidance behavior
  • Fear generalization to similar stimuli
• What is the two-process model used to explain?

  Phobias
• What is a strength of the two-process model regarding supporting evidence?

  It has received supporting evidence from studies like Little Albert's experiment.
• How did Little Albert develop a phobia of the white rat in the study?

  By associating the rat with a loud noise through classical conditioning.
• What phenomenon occurred with Little Albert besides developing a phobia of the white rat?

  Fear generalization to similar objects like a white rabbit.
• Why is the two-process model considered environmentally reductionist?

  It explains phobias solely through stimulus-response learning.
• What percentage of people bitten by a dog do not develop a phobia of dogs?

  50%
• What cognitive factors might influence the development of a phobia according to the limitations of the two-process model?

  Existing positive or negative schemas based on prior experiences.
• What is a final limitation of the two-process model regarding the nature-nurture debate?

  It overly focuses on the nurture side by suggesting all phobias are learned.
• What do biological psychologists propose about the development of some phobias?

  They suggest we are born with an increased likelihood of developing certain phobias for survival.
• What is one treatment for phobias that has resulted from the two-process model?

  Systematic desensitization.
• How does systematic desensitization work to treat phobias?

  It uses counterconditioning to associate the phobic stimulus with relaxation instead of fear.
• What is the purpose of flooding in treating phobias?

  To prevent negatively reinforcing avoidance behavior through immediate exposure.
• Why does the effectiveness of treatments developed from the two-process model add credibility to the model itself?

  If the treatments are effective, it suggests the underlying explanation has merit.
• Identify the two treatments for phobias.


  Systematic desensitisation and flooding.
• What is systematic desensitisation used to treat?

  Phobias
• How does systematic desensitisation help a person with a phobia?

  It helps them associate their phobic stimulus with feelings of relaxation instead of fear
• What is the first step in the systematic desensitisation process?

  The therapist teaches the client relaxation techniques
• What is an anxiety hierarchy in the context of systematic desensitisation?

  It is a ranking of the client's feared situations from least to most fearful
• What does the patient do at the least fearful point of the anxiety hierarchy?

  They practice their relaxation techniques
• What happens after the patient feels relaxed at a stage in the hierarchy?

  They progress to the next stage of the hierarchy
• What can a patient do if they become too distressed during the systematic desensitisation process?

  They can return to an earlier stage to regain their relaxed state
• What is the nature of the process in systematic desensitisation?

  It is gradual
• What is the goal of counterconditioning in systematic desensitisation?

  To replace fear with relaxation in response to the phobic stimulus
• What is flooding in the context of treating phobias?

  Flooding is a direct process of counterconditioning a person's phobia.
• How does flooding help a person with a phobia?

  It helps them associate their phobic stimulus with feelings of relaxation rather than fear.