psychopathology

• the DSM-5 is the diagnostic manual used by clinicians to diagnose psychological disorders
• statistical infrequency


  abnormality by identifying behaviors or traits as abnormal if they are statistically rare in the population. Typically, behaviors falling in the lowest or highest 2-5% are considered infrequent. IDD those who score below 70 on IQ tests are rare
• deviation from social norms


  when a perosn behaves different that expected. Social norms are relative to where you live- something being universally abnormal is rare. Eg. in the diagnosis is ASPD ' ‘absence of prosocial internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour' is an important symptom for diagnosis.
• AO3 for statistical infrequency

  • real world application - used to assess the severity of symptoms, diagnosis of IDD is the bottom 2% of IQ scores, Beck's depression inventory the top 5% of respondents are indicated to have severe depression
  • infrequent characteristics can be positive/not abnormal- high IQ is a statistical infrequency but isn't negative same for a low BDI score. This shows its not sufficient for sole mode of diagosis
• AO3 for deviation from social norms

  • real-world application- use in clinical practise eg. in diagnosis of ASPD and schizotypal personality disorder where 'strange' is used to diagnose thinking.
  • cultural and situautional relativisim- social norms vary across different cultures and different situations eg. hearing voices in some cultures is normal but in typically western societies its defined as abnormal. There are things that are acceptable in family situations that arent in corporate decisions
• Failure to function adequately


  abnormality defined as an inability to cope with the demands of everyday life eg. inability to maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene, work or have social relationships.

  Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) : not conforming to standard interpersonal rules, severe personal distress, and irrational or dangerous behaviour.
• Deviation from ideal mental health


  defining what makes someone normal and then identify who deviates from this.

  Jahoda's criteria for ideal mental health:

  • no symptoms/distress
  • rational and accurate self perception
  • ability for self actualisation
  • cope with stress
  • realistic world view
  • good self esteem
  • indepence
  • successfully work, love, and enjoy leisure
• AO3 for failure to function adequately

  • represents a threshold for help- when someone fails to function this indicates a need to seek professional help or referred to help by others
  • discrimination and social control- easy to label non standard lifestyle choices as abnormal. someone choosing not to conform ie. not having a permanent job isn't really failure to function. Similarly with living ''off grid'' or enjoying high risk activities. People who choose to make unusual life choices are at risk of being labelled as abnormal.
• AO3 for deviation from ideal mental health

  • comprehensive definition- Jahoda's wide range of criteria allows for meaningful discussion about abnormal mental health with a range of professionals. It works as a checklist
  • may be culture bound- not all elements are equally applicable. Jahoda's criteria is based in western standards certain concepts arent applicable in different cultures
• Behaviour characteristics of phobias

  • panic- in response to the phobic stimulus, crying, screaming, running away
  • avoidance- conscious effort to prevent contact with phobic stimulus
  • endurance- choice to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  • anxiety- an emotional response to phobias, an unpleasant high state of arousal which prevents relaxing, can be long term
  • fear- immediate unpleasant response to thinking about or encountering the phobic stimulus, more intense and short term than anxiety
  • unreasonable response- fear and anxiety is disproportionate to threat posed by phobic stimulus.
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  • selective attention- keeping attention on the phobic stimulus
  • irrational beliefs- holding beliefs about the phobic stimulus that cannot be explained and don't have basis in reality
  • cognitive distortions- inaccurate and unrealistic perceptions of phobic stimulus
• Behaviour characteristics of depression

  • low activity levels- reduced energy levels which can lead to withdrawal from work, inability to get out of bed
  • psychomotor agitation- inability to relax
  • disruption to sleeping and eating- insomnia or hypersomnia, appetite may increase or decrease
  • aggression and self-harm- depressed people are often irritable and can become verbally or physically aggressive which can affect social life. This aggression can also be directed towards the self
• Emotional characteristics of depression

  • lowered mood- daily experience of feeling lethargic and sad, feeling of worthlessness or emptiness
  • anger- extreme anger directed towards the self or others which can lead to aggressive behaviours
  • lowered self esteem- liking oneself less than usual and this can be extreme turning into self loathing
• Cognitive characteristics of depression

  • poor concentration - may find it difficult to stick to a task or make decisions which can interfere with work
  • dwelling on the negative- inclination to pay more attention to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the negatives, bias for recalling unhappy events
  • absolutist thinking- black and white thinking so when a situation is slightly bad its a 'disaster'
• Behavioral characteristics of OCD

  • repetitive compulsions- feeling compelled to repeat an action
  • compulsions reduce anxiety- compulsive behaviours and attempt to manage anxiety caused by obsessions
  • avoidance- in an attempt to reduce anxiety by avoiding situations that cause it, this can interfere with everyday life
• Emotional characteristics of OCD

  • anxiety and distress- unpleasant emotional and frightening experiences from compulsions and obsessions can be overwhelming
  • accompanying depression- anxiety is accompanied by low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities
  • guilt and disgust- irrational guilt over minor moral issues or disgust directed at the self or something external (like dirt)
• Cognitive characteristics of OCD

  • obsessive thoughts- reoccurring thoughts that are unpleasant
  • cognitive coping strategies- eg praying for religious guilt obsessions to manage anxiety, can distract from other tasks
  • insight into excessive anxiety- people with OCD are aware that their obsessions and compulsions are irrational