European history

• What are the main beliefs of liberalism?

  Individual freedoms, freedom of speech, trial by jury, and rule by consent of parliament
• Who were the primary supporters of liberalism in the 19th century?

  Largely the middle class who wanted to avoid authoritarian rule
• What economic principle did liberals support?

  Laissez-faire, meaning trade free from government interference
• Why did liberals oppose trade unions?

  They believed trade unions restricted the freedoms of employers
• Who primarily supported nationalism in Germany and Italy?

  Small groups from the educated middle classes
• What was the nobles' opposition to nationalism based on?

  Nobles felt they had more in common with nobles from other countries
• What was the purpose of the Congress of Vienna in 1814?

  To ensure international peace through the Quadruple Alliance
• How was Germany reorganized at the Congress of Vienna?

  Into a confederation of 39 states under the control of Austria
• What was the state of Italy after the Congress of Vienna?

  Italy was not unified, weak, and had an underdeveloped economy
• What were the reasons for regional differences in Italy?

  No sense of national identity, poor communications, and different languages
• What was Klemens von Metternich's view on nationalism?

  He believed nationalism threatened the stability of the Austrian Empire
• What was the Holy Alliance of 1815?

  A pact signed by monarchs of Russia, Austria, and Germany to uphold monarchy and Church power
• What were the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819?

  Measures introduced to control radical groups through censorship
• What did the Six Articles of 1832 aim to do?

  Curbed political meetings in German states
• How did the Industrial Revolution affect social classes in Germany?

  It led to the growth of middle classes and urban working classes
• What were the Prussian reforms of 1818?

  Prussia abolished internal customs barriers and encouraged other German states to do the same
• What was the Zollverein established in 1834?

  A customs union that promoted free trade among German states
• What were the revolutions of the 1820s and 1830s about?

  They were uprisings in Spain, Belgium, Germany, and Poland
• What happened during the 1848 revolutions in France?

  Louis Philippe was deposed
• What was the Frankfurt parliament of 1848?

  A parliament that claimed to represent all Germans but lacked unified debates
• Why did Friedrich William IV refuse the throne of Germany?

  He believed a unified Germany was an effect of revolution
• What was the Budget Crisis of 1860 in Prussia?

  It was a conflict over increasing the military budget opposed by liberals
• What was Bismarck's "blood and iron" speech about?

  It was aimed at winning support for the military budget
• What was Bismarck's approach to the middle and lower classes?

  He was reluctant to engage with them but appreciated social changes
• What was the role of Helmuth von Moltke and Albrecht von Roon in the Prussian army?

  They helped create Prussia’s successful army
• What was the cause of the War with Denmark in 1864?

  The Danish King sought to increase power over Schleswig and Holstein
• What was the outcome of the War with Austria in 1866?

  Prussia replaced the German Confederation with the North German Confederation
• What was the Treaty of Prague?

  A treaty that established the North German Confederation
• What was the significance of the Franco-Prussian War?

  It led to the full unification of Germany
• What was the impact of Bismarck's manipulation of the Ems Telegram?

  It angered the south German states and turned them against France
• What territories did Germany gain after the Franco-Prussian War?

  Alsace and Lorraine
• What were the problems facing Italy after unification?

  High debts, opposition to Piedmont, and a north-south divide
• What was the Treaty of Plombieres?

  An agreement between Cavour and Napoleon III for French support against Austria
• What was the outcome of the War with Austria in 1859?

  Piedmont gained Lombardy but faced opposition from other states
• What was the significance of Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand in 1860?

  It led to the control of Sicily and Naples by Garibaldi
• What was the final step in the unification of Italy?

  Rome became part of Italy in 1870 after French troops withdrew
• What were the main divisions in Italy around 1850?

  • Separate self-governing states
  • North more prosperous than south
  • Different dialects and local customs
  • Austria's influence over many states
• What were the achievements and failures of the 1848-49 revolutions in Italy?

  Achievements:

  • Raised awareness for unification
  • Mobilized nationalist sentiments

  
  

  Failures:

  • Little real change
  • Uprisings suppressed by Austrian troops
  • Pope refused to join the fight
• What were the key nationalist leaders in Italy and their contributions?

  • King Charles Albert: Liberal views, declared war on Austria
  • Giuseppe Mazzini: Advocated for unification and republicanism
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi: Led revolutions and gained control of Sicily
  • Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour: Increased Piedmont's power and wealth
• What were the main problems facing the newly unified Italy?

  • Opposition to Piedmont's control
  • High unpaid war debts
  • Economic divide between the north and south