Psychological explanations: cognitive

• What does moral reasoning refer to?

  It is the way people determine right and wrong.
• What is the relationship between moral reasoning and criminal behavior?

  Lower moral reasoning is linked to higher criminality.
• Who was the first researcher to apply moral reasoning to offending behavior?

  Lawrence Kohlberg
• What is the pre-conventional level in Kohlberg's model?

  It is characterized by avoiding punishment and gaining rewards.
• How do offenders' levels of moral reasoning compare to non-offenders?

  Offenders show lower levels of moral reasoning.
• What did Kohlberg et al. (1973) find about violent youths?

  They had lower moral development than non-violent youths.
• What is a characteristic of individuals at the pre-conventional level?

  They exhibit childlike reasoning.
• What is cognitive distortion?

  It is an error in information processing.
• What is hostile attribution bias?

  It is misinterpreting others' actions as confrontational.
• How do violent offenders perceive ambiguous facial expressions?

  They are more likely to see them as angry.
• What is minimalisation in the context of offending behavior?

  It is downplaying the seriousness of an offense.
• What did Howard Barbaree (1991) find about incarcerated rapists?

  54% denied committing an offense at all.
• What is a strength of the research on moral reasoning and crime?

  It provides evidence for the link between them.
• What did Emma Palmer and Clive Hollin (1998) find in their study?

  Offenders showed less mature moral reasoning.
• What limitation did David Thornton and R. L. Reid (1982) find regarding moral reasoning?

  It may depend on the type of offense.
• What is a potential issue with moral reasoning according to the evaluation?

  Moral thinking does not equal moral behavior.
• How does cognitive behavior therapy relate to cognitive distortions?

  It challenges irrational thinking in offenders.
• What did Dennis Howitt and Kerry Sheldon (2007) find about cognitive distortions in sexual offenders?

  Non-contact offenders used more cognitive distortions.
• What is a limitation of cognitive distortions in relation to offending behavior?

  They are not used the same way by all offenders.
• What is the difference between descriptive and explanatory approaches in understanding offending behavior?

  Descriptive approaches describe, while explanatory approaches predict.