Pathology

• What areas can laboratory analysis and pathological investigation relate to?

  • Bacteriology
  • Biochemistry
  • Virology
  • Parasitology
  • Biophysics (medical physics)
  • Radiology
• What is the definition of pathology?

  Pathology is the study of disease.
• What do professionals in pathology study to investigate diseases?

  Cells, tissues, blood, urine, and other body fluids from patients.
• What are the subspecialties of biochemistry mentioned in the study material?

  • Immunology: testing the immune system
  • Toxicology: looking for drugs/poisons
  • Endocrinology: looking at hormone levels
  • Urea and Electrolytes: checking sodium, potassium, and bicarbonate levels
• What does a Full Blood Count (FBC) include?

  HB, WCC, Platelets, ESR, CRP, and Lactate.
• What does the Urea and Electrolytes test check for?

  Electrolytes in the blood such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
• What can abnormal levels of electrolytes cause?

  Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias).
• What does a high level of urea in the blood indicate?

  Possible kidney problems.
• What substances are screened in toxicology tests?

  • Salicylate
  • Paracetamol
  • Lithium
  • Digoxin
  • Theophylline
  • Phenytoin
  • Carbamazepine
  • Alcohol
  • Gentamicin
  • Tobramycin
  • Vancomycin
• What do endocrine tests check for?

  Levels of certain hormones within the body.
• What can high bilirubin levels indicate?

  Possible jaundice due to gallstones, liver disease, or rare blood disorders.
• What do liver enzymes such as ALP, ALT, AST, and GGT indicate?

  They can indicate liver function and health.
• What does a thyroid profile test measure?

  TSH, Free T4, and Free T3 levels.
• What does HbA1c refer to?

  Glycated hemoglobin formed when hemoglobin joins with glucose.
• What does troponin indicate when released into the bloodstream?

  Damage to the heart muscle.
• How does the high-sensitivity troponin test differ from standard tests?

  It can measure troponin at much lower levels.
• Why is it important to check the quality of a sample taken for analysis?

  Poor quality can affect the test results.
• What are the key factors to ensure sample integrity?

  • Good quality sample
  • Correct labeling
  • Quick stabilization
  • Optimum storage conditions
• What do normal values in pathological results indicate?

  They allow practitioners to identify significant variations in patient results.
• What is the most cost-effective form of radiological imagery?

  Plain X-ray imagery.
• How do dense structures appear on X-ray images?

  They absorb a high percentage of the X-ray beam and appear light grey.
• What can be identified on a chest X-ray?

  The sex of the patient and the outlines of the breast.
• What structures can be inspected on a chest X-ray?

  • Heart size
  • Ribs for fractures
  • Vertebrae
  • Clavicles
  • Lung air space
  • Soft tissues for haematoma
• What are the types of investigations carried out in the medical physics department?

  • Respiratory function tests
  • Cardiovascular function tests
  • Nuclear Medicine tests
  • Exercise tolerance tests
  • Bone Densitometry (DXA)
  • CT or MRI
• What is microbiology in healthcare focused on?

  The study of organisms that cause infections within the human body.
• When are urine cultures performed?

  When urine samples show greater than 40 x 10⁶/litre white blood cells.
• What indicates a need for treatment in urinary tract infections?

  Symptoms like lower back pain, increased frequency of micturition, urgency, or fever.
• What do sputum cultures help identify?

  Bacteria or fungi in the respiratory tract.
• What is PCR used for in microbiology?

  Identifying organisms that are difficult to culture.
• What should be considered when analyzing patient results?

  Patient history and normal values.
• What is anaemia defined as?

  A hemoglobin (Hb) range two standard deviations below the normal range for age and sex.
• What factors should be considered in a patient's history related to anaemia?

  Bleeding, gynaecological problems, family history, genetic history, drug and alcohol history, dietary factors, chronic illness.
• What is the significance of the example of the 57-year-old man in the lecture?

  It illustrates the application of pathological data analysis in a clinical scenario.
• What does the Full Blood Count (FBC) of the 57-year-old man indicate?

  • Haemoglobin (Hb): 135 g/L (normal)
  • White cell count (WCC): 19.78 x 10⁹/L (high)
  • Neutrophils: 15.8 x 10⁹/L (high)
  • Lymphocytes: 3.0 x 10⁹/L (normal)
  • Monocytes: 0.6 x 10⁹/L (normal)
  • Eosinophils: 0.3 x 10⁹/L (normal)
  • Basophils: 0.08 x 10⁹/L (normal)
  • Platelet count: 430 x 10⁹/L (high)
  • Mean cell volume (MCV): 92.1 fL (normal)
• What do the Urea and Electrolytes results indicate for the 57-year-old man?

  • Sodium (Na⁺): 137 mmol/L (normal)
  • Potassium (K⁺): 4.9 mmol/L (normal)
  • Urea: 10.2 mmol/L (high)
  • Creatinine: 175 μmol/L (high)
• What is the importance of practical examples in the classroom setting for learning outcomes?

  They help students apply data analysis skills in real-world scenarios.