research methods

• What is the definition of an aim in research?

  A general statement that describes the purpose of an investigation
• What is the definition of a hypothesis?

  A statement made at the start of the study that clearly describes the relationship between variables as stated by the theory
• What are the types of hypothesis used in research?

  Directional and non-directional
• What is the difference between a directional and a non-directional hypothesis?

  A directional hypothesis states the direction of the difference/relationship, while a non-directional hypothesis states that there is a difference or relationship but does not specify the nature of it
• When would a researcher use a directional hypothesis?

  When a theory or the findings of previous research studies suggest a particular outcome
• When would a researcher use a non-directional hypothesis?

  When there is no theory or previous research, or if the findings from earlier studies are contradictory
• What is the independent variable (IV)?

  Aspects of the experimental situation that are manipulated by the researcher to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV)
• What is the dependent variable (DV)?

  The variable that is measured by the researcher, which should be affected by changes in the independent variable
• What is the definition of operationalisation?

  Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured
• What do we need in a good experiment?

  • A clear aim
  • A clear and testable hypothesis
  • Levels of the independent variable
  • Operationalisation of variables
• What is the definition of an extraneous variable?

  Any variable other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable if not controlled
• What is the definition of a confounding variable?

  A type of extraneous variable that varies systematically with the independent variable
• What is meant by a demand characteristic?

  Any cue from the researcher or the research situation that may be interpreted by the participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation
• How can demand characteristics affect research outcomes?

  They may lead participants to change their behavior within the research situation
• What is an investigator effect?

  Any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome
• What may an investigator effect refer to?

  Expectancy effects and unconscious cues, including actions related to the design of the study
• What are the two ways to minimize extraneous/confounding variables?

  • Randomisation
  • Standardisation
• What is randomisation in research?

  The use of chance methods to reduce the researcher's unconscious biases when designing materials and experimental conditions
• What is meant by standardisation in research?

  Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study
• What is a participant variable?

  Any individual differences between participants which may affect the dependent variable
• Give examples of participant variables.

  Age, gender, intelligence, motivation, concentration, personality
• What is meant by a situational variable?

  Any features of the experimental situation that may affect the dependent variable
• Give examples of situational variables.

  Noise, temperature, time of day, instructions, weather
• What is meant by an experimental design?

  The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions
• What are the three different experimental designs?

  • Independent groups
  • Repeated measures
  • Matched pairs
• Explain the independent groups design.

  Participants are allocated to different groups where each group experiences one experimental condition, and the performance of the groups is then compared
• Explain the repeated measures design.

  All participants experience all conditions of the experiment, and mean scores from each condition are compared to see if there is a difference
• Explain the matched pairs design.

  Pairs of participants are matched on variables that may affect the dependent variable, and one member of each pair is assigned to condition A and the other to B
• What are the limitations of the independent groups design?

  Participants in each group are not the same in terms of participant variables, which can act as a confounding variable
• What are the strengths of the independent groups design?

  Order effects are not a problem, and participants are less likely to guess the aims of the experiment
• How do we address the issue of participant variables in an independent groups design?

  By using random allocation to evenly distribute participants across conditions
• What are the limitations of the repeated measures design?

  Order effects act as a confounding variable, and participants may guess the aims of the investigation
• What are the strengths of the repeated measures design?

  Participant variables are controlled, leading to higher validity, and fewer participants are needed
• How do we control the order effect in a repeated measures design?

  By using counterbalancing, where half of the participants take part in condition A then B, and the other half take part in condition B then A
• What are the strengths of using the matched pairs design?

  Participants only take part in a single condition, so order effects and demand characteristics are less of a problem
• What are the limitations of using matched pairs design?

  It is impossible to match participants exactly, and matching may be time-consuming and expensive
• What are the four different types of experiment?

  • Lab
  • Field
  • Natural
  • Quasi
• What is a laboratory experiment?

  An experiment conducted in highly controlled environments
• What are the strengths of using a laboratory experiment?

  High control over confounding and extraneous variables, allowing for demonstration of cause and effect
• What are the limitations of using a laboratory experiment?

  May lack generalisability due to low external validity and participants may exhibit unnatural behavior