reductionism + holism

• determinism

  All behavior is predetermined by internal or external factors (out of your control)

  Cause and effect (Science looks for IV = DV)

  Biologically (genes, neurochemistry, brain)

  Determinism raises issues of negating responsibility for behaviour (e.g. my aggression is genetic/biochemical/learnt, and therefore I shouldn’t be punished, etc.) or problems with social sensitivity (poor mothering leads to poor adult relationships, etc.

  As a result it fails to consider that an individual can be self-determining in their responses and exercise free will to change behaviour.
• reductionism

  Neurochemistry/Genes (Biologically)

  Reductionism - isolated variables to stop complications

  Basic , simplest constituent parts - to avoid complications 

  As a result drug therapies have been created etc, but the context of a behaviour can be lost- such as a period of depression following a bereavement is easier to explain when you take into account all aspects of the individual’s experience at that time. (Holism)
• biological reductionism 


  biological psychologists try to reduce behaviour to a physical level + explain it in terms of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, brain structure etc
• environmental reductionism


  known as stimulus - response reductionism. Behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of S-R (stimulus-response) associations that complex behaviours are a series of S-R chains
• Holism


  greek word for 'holos', which means 'all', 'whole' or 'entire' and is the idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience, and not as separate parts
• reductionism 


  reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts
• Holism is an argument or theory which proposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible or whole system rather than its constituent parts. The humanistic approach is holistic because it states that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts. Biological reductionism is a form of reductionism which attempts to explain social and psychological events at lower biological level (in terms of actions of genes, hormones).
• The biological approach of Schizophrenia (SZ) would say that SZ is caused by disrupted serotonin levels. Environmental reductionism attempts to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus response links that have been learned through experience. The behaviourist approach is an example of environmental reductionism because it states that all behaviour is learnt through conditioning.
• Explanations vary from those at lower levels of complexity focusing on basic components to those at a higher level more holistic multi variable. OCD could be understood at a psychological level by explaining it in terms of irrational thoughts. OCD could also be explained at a much lower level by stating it is caused by biological factors like genes.
• reductionism

  levels of explanations: explanations vary from those at lower levels of complexity focusing on basic components to those at a higher more holistic multivariable level

  
• levels of explanations (application) (aggression)


  High (social + cultural expectations) - This was illustrated by Souweidane and Huesmann (1999), who found that Detroit High School children who had been born in the United States were more accepting of aggression than children who had emigrated from the Middle East, especially if they did so after the age of 11
• levels of explanations (application) (aggression)


  middle (cognitive/behavioural/environment) - Operant conditioning or observation and imitation (social learning).

  Vicarious reinforcement - seeing the rewards of certain behaviours
• levels of explanations (application) (aggression)


  low (neurochemicals genetics) - Aggression can be explained at a biological level in terms of hormones (e.g. testosterone) or brain structure (e.g. the amygdala processing emotions about the environment flight or flight);
• levels of explanation (OCD)


  high (social + cultural expectations) - This can be explained through repetitive behaviours such as washing hand as most people would regard this as odd or irrational. Different cultures have norms/customs/traditions that are deemed  acceptable. If you deviate from these you will be considered odd.

  DSN
• levels of explanation (OCD)


  middle (cognitive/behavioural/environment) - The obsessive thoughts (cognitive) about contamination by germs or dirt. Repetitive behaviours to turn the light off, to clean all the time with a focus on a sequence of movements involved in washing hands (behavioural)
• levels of explanation (OCD)


  low (neurochemicals genetics) - Underproduction of serotonin

  • to regulate the mood as the information is not passed on from the neurons. This underproduction can explain why they are not able to cope with OCD
• holism


  Maslow hierarchy of needs - you look at the whole person to explain their behaviours
• holism

  Rogers - client centred approach. You can't reduce humans down to simple things such as genes or environment. Being human is all the experiences we go through in life. All the factors need to be considered, family, money, education, environmental, cultural, background + your experience. Life is complicated. Interactionist - biological + psychological explanations

  EV: However, complexity makes it hard to test thus unscientific. This is why reductionism is need to try to control + then test to identify the cause of behaviour
• biological reductionism


  • OCD - high levels of dopamine + low levels of serotonin, imbalance of neurotransmitters not regulating the mood
  • Schizophrenia - explanations of genes being passed on from parents
  • Aggression - low levels MAOA gene serotonin levels become abnormal individuals are less able to control themselves + therefore act violently
  • Depression - biochemically as a being a result of low levels of serotonin in the synaptic gaps between neurons
• Environmental reductionism (behaviourist)


  Pavlov and Skinner

  • automatic response to stimulus. Individual behaviours are learned through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning. E.g. phobias little Albert was conditioned to associate a loud hammer with a white rat he developed a phobia and as a result every time he saw a white or fluffy animal he became scared.
• reductionism (scientific research) 


  In order to create operationalised variables (IV and DV) it is necessary to break down target behaviours into constituent parts. This makes it possible to conduct experiments and record observations in a way that is meaningful and reliable. The behaviourist approach was also able to show how complex learning could be broken down into simple stimulus-response links within the lab.
• reductionism (scientific research)

  biological reductionism has led to focussing on biological causes and the development of biological therapies, such as drugs. For example, SSRIs are more effective than placebos at treating the symptoms of OCD and reduce the symptoms for up to three months after the treatment (Soomro et al. 2008). The use of SSRIs in patients with OCD has helped to reduce the anxiety associated with OCD thus providing relief for some patients. This gives psychology greater credibility, placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences.
• a03: biological 


  one strength is that it has practical application. for example genes + neurotransmitters are offered as the main cause of disorders such as schizophrenia. studies have shown that atypical + typical drugs have some success. Thornely found chlorpromazine was effective when compared to the placebo effect. this supports the idea that looking at behaviours + their simplest components, i.e. the genes and/or neurochemistry can lead to targeted treatment for individuals with certain disorders
• a03: too simplistic

  Reductionist approaches can sometimes oversimplify phenomena. When phenomena are made simpler, it can lead to a loss of validity. Explanations that operate at the levels of the gene, neurotransmitter or neuron do not include an analysis of the social context within which behaviour occurs.  The biological processes involved in pointing your finger will be the same universally regardless of the context. However, an analysis of these will not tell us why the finger is pointed and this may differ from person to person or cross culturally.
• Gestalt psychology

  • ‘Gestalten’ is the German word for whole.

  German psychologists who specialised in the study of perception argued that explanations for what we see only makes sense through a consideration of the whole rather than the individual elements
• Holism


  The holistic explanation attempts to blend different levels of explanation.

  Holistic theory and approaches attempt to provide a complete and realistic understanding of human behaviour. However, holistic explanations do not establish causation because they do not examine behaviour in terms of operationalised variables that can be manipulated and measured. This means that holistic explanations are viewed as unscientific.
• ao3: benefits of holism

  Holism has benefits as some social behaviours cannot be understood in terms of individual group members. For example, deindividuation in the Zimbardo prison study could not be understood by studying participants as individuals, it was the interaction between people and the behaviour of people that was important.  This shows that holistic explanations provide a more complete understanding of behaviour when compared to reductionist approaches. 
• a03: holism


  holistic explanations are limited because they tend to not lend themselves to rigorous testing. The humanistic approach has a lack of empirical evidence. The humanistic approach includes vague and abstract concepts which are difficult to test under experimental conditions for example, self-actualisation.
• interactionism


  a compromise is needed to settle this debate. the interactionist approach may consider how different levels of explanation combine + interact. An example of the interactionist approach is the diathesis-stress model. For example an individual may be biologically predisposed to develop depression/SZ but it will be triggered by a stressor. This model has led to a more holistic approach to treatment combining drugs and therapy.

  So both the predisposition/vulnerability and the stressor trigger are needed to explain depression
• interactionist approach


  interactionism considers how different levels of explanation may combine + interact. An example of the interactionist approach is the diathesis-stress model which has been used to explain the onset of mental disorders such as schizophrenia + depression. such disorders are seen to come about as the result of a predisposition which is 'triggered' by some stressor.
• interactionist approach


  the model has led to a more multidisciplinary + 'hollistic' approach of treatment - combining drugs + family therapy, for instance - and is associated with lower relapse rates
• example of holism in depression

  • Considers the whole person’s experience:
  • Cognitive,
  • Emotional,
  • Spiritual,
  • Developmental,
  • Social,
  • Cultural,
  • Environmental,
  • Economic.
  • Deals with person holistically.
• example of reductionism in depression

  • Consider major systems involved:
  • Biological: serotonin system.
  • Behaviourist: learned behaviours; stimulus, response.
  • Treat symptoms according to involvement of each system.
• support for the effectiveness of combinations of treatments

  Tarkington et al. (2006) point out it is not really possible to use combination treatments without adopting an interactionist approach. Studies show an advantage to using combination of treatments for schizophrenia.
• support for the effectiveness of combinations of treatment

  in one study by Nicholas Tarrier et al. (2004) 315 patients were randomly allocated to a medication + CBT group, medication + supportive counselling or a control group. Patients in the combination groups had lower symptom levels than the control group, with no difference in hospital readmission rates. Studies like this show that there is a clear practical advantage to adopting an interactionist approach in the form of superior treatment outcomes + therefore highlight the importance of taking an interactionist approach
• how relationships relates to holism/reductionism

  The evolutionary explanation for partner preferences is biological reductionist as it implies there are some genetic transmission of that behaviour.  This suggests that’s why some people choose their partner is due to biological make up.

  Theories of relationship maintenance and attraction look to an interaction between two people - making it more holistic.
• how schizophrenia relates to holism/reductionism

  Family dysfunction is more of a holistic explanation as it looks at how the family interact to develop SZ.

  Genetic explanations adopt a biological reductionist approach
• how aggression relates to holism/reductionism

  Deindividuation considers the presence and influence of others on the individual’s propensity to be aggressive thus making it holistic.

  The MAOA gene is biological reductionism as it simply focuses on chromosomal level. However the expression of MAOA gene depends on circumstances within the environment, suggesting a need to consider other levels making it interactionist
• ao3: biological reductionism

  • Development of drug therapies became possible with a reductionist approach. Looking at behaviours as a result of small components (neurotransmitters, hormones etc.)
  • More humane/ethical approach for treating mental disorders as it does not blame the patient. 
  • Greater tolerance/acceptance of mental disorders in society
• ao3: biological reductionism

  • Drug therapies are based on the lowest level of explaining behaviour. Therefore, they treat the symptoms and not the cause. They treat the ‘how’ and not the ‘why’.
  • Dependency on drugs
  • External locus of control
  • No appreciation of the social or psychological context