Psychology as a Science

• The Scientific Method

  Conclusions should be based on evidence which is:

  Empirical and Objective

  
  

  We have better understanding of the discipline when we recognise the Subjectivity of the research process.
• Empirical:

  Information gathered from experience, observation and experimentation
• Objective

  Information gathered is free from bias
• Research:

  The systematic study of a topic in order to finds answers to questions
• Is Psychology a science? (what evidence can we provide for the questions we ask and the answers we give)

  According to the BPS: Psychology is the scientific study of human mind and behaviour: how we think, feel, act and interact individually and in groups
• Key challenges in Psychology:

  • Much of what we are interested in is unobservable, E.g. Personality, motives, emotions and attitudes (to overcome we make predictions and test them)
  • Is it possible to examine human behaviour without subjectivity (recognise the subjectivity and then reduce bias)
  • Psychology is a very diverse discipline (some subfields are more bound in scientific methods that others)
• BPS states:

  Psychology is a science and psychologists study human mind and behaviour by observing, measuring and testing, then arriving at conclusions that are rooted in sound scientific methodology
• Science vs Pseudoscience

  Psychology is vulnerable to pseudoscientific claims as many have an inherent interest in understanding human behaviour
• Pseudoscience:

  A claim, belief or practise which is presented as scientific, but does not adhere to a valid scientific method, lacks supporting evidence or plausibility, cannot be reliably tested, or otherwise lacks scientific status
• How is Pseudoscience characterised?

  The use of vague, contradictory, exaggerated or un-testable claims
• What are pseudoscience beliefs based on?

  Prejudice, speculation or just simply misinformation. Unless we have evidence, from good quality research, we cannot make any reliable claims for or against these statments
• Examples of Pseudoscientific claims:

  • Phenology- personality is determined by bumps on your head
  • Polygraph test- detect lies from truth
  • MMR vaccines- the belief that receiving the MMR vaccine increase you chance of developing autism
  • Conversion therapy- electric shocks to genitals in reaction to homophobic stimuli to change sexuality
• History of Psychology as a science:

  • Psychoanalysis movement
  • Behaviourist movement
  • Cognitive movement
  • Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience
• Psychoanalysis movement:

  • Based on introspection
  • Freud
  • used clinical case studies based on therapeutic interviews with his patients to generate data and then theories. 
  • His theories about human nature came from close observation of his patients and led to an enormous body of work, which still influences the discipline today. 
• What criticism did Psychoanalytic movement face?

  • Not being scientific at all
  • Subjective bias
  • Lack of concrete, testable ideas
  • Over reliance on single case studies
• Behaviourist movement:

  • Believed you can't make any inferences of what happens inside the mind
  • It a "black box"
  • Can only study directly observable behaviour
• Cognitive movement:

  • Don't need direct observation
  • Can study inner workings of the mind
  • Can make predictions and subject them to empirical testing
  • Can infer emotions and attitudes (just need to make testable predictions)
• Cognitive neuroscience movement:

  • Observation of the inner workings of the mind
  • We can peer inside the brain and directly observe what's happening when thinking and feeling
• How is the scientific method applied?

  • Induction
  • Falsifiability
  • Bayesianism
  • Hypothetico-Deductive Method
• Induction:

  • Process by which scientists decide on the basis of multiple observations or experiments that a theory is true or not
  • Through a finite number of observations we generate a general conclusion for all such future observations
  • E.g. If there's a red sky at night it means the next day will be a glorious day
  • However, how can a finite number of observations guarantee what will happen in the future
  • E.g. There could be a red sky at night, but then the next day is awful
  • This leads to Falsifiability
• What is falsifiability?

  • The principle that we need to subject theories to scrutiny in order to prove/disprove them so that they can be scientific.
  • We collect evidence for our theory, if evidence contradicts our theory, we formulate an alternative, if it supports our theory we regard it as an undefeated theory
  • "Undefeated" as it's not a statement of truth, it's not proven until all possible instances and outcomes have been observed
  • Means we have the capacity to learn from our mistakes and say that evidence doesn't fit which leads to the theory being refined, re-worked and tested again.
• What is Bayesianism?

  • The likelihood of future events can be expressed on the basis of past knowledge.
  • helps us determine the degree of confidence we have in our beliefs
  • You revise probability predictions when faced with evidence in support or against our theory
  • Provides a measure of a state of knowledge
  • Key principle of statistics
  • Bayesians= beliefs come in degrees
  • Can't say it arrives at a truth but can say we have this amount of confidence in the theory being correct
• e.g. of Bayesianism

  Prior belief: it's not going to rain 30% chance of rain,  

  New evidence: you go out and see storm clouds making rain seem more likely  

  Posterior belief: with the clouds coming in your belief of the chance of rain coming in updates to 70% 

  As you gather new evidence, you can update your degree of confidence (posterior probability). If the new evidence strongly supports your belief, your confidence increases. Vice versa 
• What is the Hypothetico-Deductive Method?

  • Starts with an Observation or Intuition- identify a behaviour
  • Generate a theory that has certain assumptions about this phenomenon
  • Generate a testable hypothesis
  • Subject hypothesis to empirical testing and find evidence
  • If results support the hypothesis the theory is upheld as undefeated, with an estimate of confidence
  • If results don't support hypothesis you refine or abandon theory
• Observable= Something you can see and record, doesn't tell you why something is happening or under what conditions it will be observed

  Testable= Structured process of examining a cause-and-effect relationship

  Observations give rise to a testable hypothesis
• What does the hypothetic-deductive method begin with in this example?

  Observation of students responding well to praise
• What behaviors could be observed to support the initial observation in the hypothetic-deductive method?

  Instances of toy sharing, raising hands, and attentive listening
• What is the testable hypothesis in this example of the hypothetic-deductive method?

  There will be significantly more instances of sharing behavior in children who receive praise relative to those who don’t
• How is the group of students divided in the experiment?

  One group receives praise, while the other group does not
• What is measured to test the hypothesis in this example?

  Sharing behavior among the students
• What conclusion can be drawn if more sharing behaviour is found in the praise group?

  It supports the hypothesis and the theory is upheld as undefeated
• What are the limitations of science?

  • Can't answer questions of/determine value
  • E.g. which flower is prettier
  • Can't answer questions of/ determine morality
  • E.g. is abortion morally correct
  • Can't answer questions of/ determine supernatural
  • E.g. Are there aliens
• What are good characteristics of scientists:

  • Uncertain
  • Sceptical
  • Open-minded
  • Cautious
  • Ethical
• What does uncertain refer to?

  Don't presuppose knowledge of the human mind or human behaviour
• What does sceptical refer to?

  Acknowledge theories supported by evidence are merely undefeated not proven
• What does open-minded refer to?

  Accept that any theory may be correct until evidence refutes it
• What does cautious refer to?

  Recognise that conclusions are not facts
• What does ethical refer to?

  Recognise our responsibility to ensure that no-one is harmed as a consequence of our research or practise as psychologists