Observational Techniques

• A researcher might decide to conduct an observation instead of an experiment. In an observation a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in behaviour being studied. Observations may be used in conjunction with other research methods. E.g. in an experiment as a way of measuring of the DV.
• There are two types of observational method to choose from - unstructured (naturalistic) observation, structured (controlled) observation
• Controlled/laboratory versus natural observation

  In a controlled environment, Ps more likely to know they are being studied reducing the "naturalness" of their behaviour.
• Evaluation of laboratory observation

  + removes interfering extraneous variables so the observation shows what variable is effecting the DV

  + High Control, improves internal validity

  + Consent, more able to give consent so the observation is more ethical

  -Lacks ecological validity - an unnatural environment leads to a change in behaviour so we cannot generalise to real life scenarios

  -Demand characters more likely as Ps will know they are being observed
• Naturalistic Observations

  Involves observing spontaneously occurring behaviour in the participants natural environment where everything has been left as it is normally. The behaviour observed is unconstrained so the people have a choice in how to behave. The researcher does not interfere in any way with what's happening. Some behaviours cannot be observed in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory since they are specific to social circumstances.
• Covert observation


  Where the psychologist observes an individual, group or situation without people being aware. The psychologists may pretend to be part of a group without revealing their true identity or aim, or may observe from a hidden viewpoint.
• Overt observation

  when the psychologist is open about their observation. They make their presence obvious and people know that their behaviour is being recorded. Since this will have an effect on the naturalness of the Ps behaviour, observers try to be as unobtrusive as possible.
• Strength and weakness of Covert observation

  S: Reduces demand characteristics

  W: ethical issues
• Strength and weakness of Overt observation

  Strength - Informed consent, ethical

  Weakness - Demand characteristics
• Participant observation


  Where the observer is part of the group that they are observing
• Non-Participant


  The researcher is not directly involved in what is being observed they watch from a distant
• Participant studies, strengths and weaknesses

  S: Reduces demand characteristics

  Can give rich qualitative data

  W: Investigator effects

  Can expose the observer to danger

  The observation can become very subjective if the observer becomes too involved
• Non Participant; Strengths and weaknesses

  S: More ethical

  Objective

  W: loss of insight
• Structured Observation


  A structured observation is useful if there is too much going on in a single observation for the researcher to record it all. Therefore, it is necessary to simplify the target behaviours that will be the main focus of the investigation.
• Unstructured observation


  In this type of observation the researcher records everything they see. This is appropriate when the observation is small scale and only involves few participants. It tends to produce rich, qualitative data.
• Evaluating Structured Observations

  + Recording data is easier and more systematic because of the use of behavioural categories

  + Data is likely to be numerical (quantitative) so analysing and comparing the behaviour observed between participants is more straightforward

  + Reduce risk of observer bias due to objective behavioural categories

  -Data lacks richness and depth
• Unstructured Observation Evaluation

  +There is richness and depth of detail when collecting data

  -Because data tends to be qualitative it is more difficult to record and analyse

  -A greater risk of observer bias because this objective behavioural categories are absent. Therefore observers are likely to record data which 'catch their eye,' and these may not be useful or relevant
• What is observer bias?

  Observer bias happens when a researcher’s expectations, opinions, or prejudices influence what they perceive or record in a study. It often affects studies where observers are aware of the research aims and hypotheses.
• Behavioural Categories


  In order to produce a structured record of what the researcher sees or hears, it is necessary to break down target behaviour into a set of behavioural categories; this is very similar to the idea of operationalisation. Target behaviours should be precisely defined and made observable and measurable.
• Interobserver-reliability 


  It is recommended that researchers don't conduct observations alone; single researchers may miss important events or only include events that support their hypothesis. To make data more objective and unbiased observations must be carried out by at least two researchers. Pairs of observers must be consistent in their judgements and any data they collect should be same or similar.

  ↑ Increasing Number of Observers = ↑ Objectivity