Cognitive psychology

• What is the definition of learning according to Weiten (2011)?

  “Any relatively durable change in behaviour due to experience.”
• How does experience affect learning?

  Experience causes neurobiological changes that present as changes in behavior.
• In which types of organisms can learning be observed?

  Learning can be seen in all animals.
• Why is learning generally considered adaptive?

  Learning is generally adaptive because it has an evolutionary basis.
• What is single stimulus (non-associative) learning?

  Learning that involves determining which stimuli are trivial or important.
• What are the two types of responses in single stimulus learning?

  Orienting responses and habituation.
• Which organisms were studied in relation to single stimulus learning?

  Sea slugs and human infants.
• What is classical conditioning?

  Learning what conditions or events predict that a significant event will occur.
• What is an example of classical conditioning?

  A tone (neutral stimulus) paired with food (significant stimulus) may elicit salivation (reflexive response).

  
• What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (US)?

  Biologically relevant stimuli such as food, noise, or a puff of air.

  
• What is an Unconditioned Response (UR)?

  A reflexive response elicited by an Unconditioned Stimulus (e.g., salivation).
• What is a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)?

  A previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with an Unconditioned Stimulus.

  
• What is a Conditioned Response (CR)?

  A reflexive response to a Conditioned Stimulus.

  
• What was Pavlov's (1927) contribution to classical conditioning?

  Pavlov discovered the principles of classical conditioning through his conditioning procedure.
• What is the learning mechanism in classical conditioning?

  The learning mechanism is prediction, where contingency is more important than contiguity.
• What is the adaptive value of generalization and discrimination in classical conditioning?

  Generalization allows for responses to similar stimuli, while discrimination helps differentiate between them.
• What is extinction in classical conditioning?

  Extinction occurs when the conditioned response decreases after the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

  
• Who is John B. Watson?

  John B. Watson is known for his work in classical conditioning in humans.
• What is conditioned taste aversion?

  Conditioned taste aversion is a learned response where an individual associates a specific taste with illness or discomfort.
• What is an example of classical conditioning in humans?

  Fear and phobias, such as the 'Little Albert' experiment.
• What is the law of effect according to Edward Thorndike?

  Responses that produce a satisfying effect become more likely to occur again, while those that produce discomfort become less likely.
• Who is Burrhus Frederick Skinner?

  Burrhus Frederick Skinner is known for his work on reinforcement and operant conditioning.
• What is the purpose of the Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)?

  The Operant Chamber is used to study operant conditioning through reinforcement and behavior observation.

  
• What is acquisition in operant conditioning?

  Acquisition occurs through reinforcement, where reinforcement is contingent upon an operant behavior.

  
• What is shaping in operant conditioning?

  Shaping is the repeated reinforcement of closer approximations to the target behavior.
• What is extinction in operant conditioning?

  Extinction occurs when there is no longer a contingency between the behavior and reinforcement.
• What are the two types of consequences in operant conditioning?

  Reinforcement and punishment.

  
• What are primary reinforcers?

  Primary reinforcers are biologically significant stimuli such as food and pain.
• What are secondary reinforcers?

  Secondary reinforcers are socially acquired stimuli such as money and good grades.
• How can secondary reinforcers be conditioned?

  Secondary reinforcers can be conditioned by previous association with primary reinforcers.
• What are the types of reinforcement schedules?

  Fixed & variable ratio schedules and fixed & variable interval schedules.
• What is negative reinforcement in the context of drug addiction?

  Negative reinforcement occurs when behavior avoids withdrawal symptoms.
• How does negative reinforcement relate to OCD?

  In OCD, behaviors are negatively reinforced as they reduce anxiety.
• What is the dual process account in relation to phobias?

  The dual process account suggests that avoidance behaviors are negatively reinforced.
• What are the references and further readings related to associative learning?

  • Garcia, J., Ervin, F.R., & Koelling, R.A. (1966). Learning with prolonged delay of reinforcement.
  • Martin, G. N., Carlson, N. R., and Buskist, W. (2010). Psychology (4th Ed.).
  • Watson, J.B. and Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions.
• What are the key concepts of operant conditioning?

  • Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behavior.
  • Punishment: Decreases likelihood of behavior.
  • Acquisition: Learning through reinforcement.
  • Shaping: Reinforcing closer approximations to target behavior.
  • Extinction: Behavior ceases when reinforcement stops.

  
• What are the types of reinforcement?

  • Primary Reinforcers: Biologically significant (e.g., food).
  • Secondary Reinforcers: Socially acquired (e.g., money).
  • Fixed & Variable Schedules: Different timing and frequency of reinforcement.