Research Methods

• What is an independent variable?


  The variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment by the experimenter in order to observe the effect.
• There are at least 2 levels of IV (2 groups/conditions).
• What is dependent variable?


  The variable that is being measured or observed in an experiment, measured by the experimenter to asses effects of independent variable.
• What is operationalisation? 


  Means defined in a way that can easily be tested.

  (having what the levels of IV are, how DV is going to be measured).
• What are extraneous variables?


  Any variable other than the IV that can manipulate the DV.
• What is participant variable?


  Characteristics of individuals in a study.
• What is situational variable?

  Feature of the environment.
• What is a hypothesis?


  A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction that can be tested through experimentation or observation.
• What are the 2 types of hypothesis?


  Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
• 2 types of alternate hypothesis.


  One-tailed (directional)

  Two-tailed (non-directional)
• Alternative hypothesis predicts a a difference or a correlation.
• Null hypothesis predicts no difference or correlation.
• Rules of writing a hypothesis. 


  • statement about the predicted relationship.
  • identify both the IV and DV.
  • include all levels of the IV.
  • IV and DV must be operationalised.
• One tailed - states the expected direction of difference.
• Two tailed - does not state the expected direction of difference.
• What are ethical issues?


  A dilemma about right and wrong.
• BPS code of ethics and conduct.

  • Respect - includes informed consent, confidentiality, privacy and right to withdraw.
  • Competence - includes awareness of professional ethics and making ethical decisions.
  • Responsible - includes protection from harm and debriefing.
  • Integrity - Includes honesty, avoiding deception and addressing misconduct.
• Informed consent.


  Participants are given comprehensive information about the nature and purpose of a study and their role in it.
• Researchers might not want participants to give informed consent so it can reduce demand characteristics.
• Confidentiality 


  The right to have personal information protected.
• Researchers may find it difficult to keep data confidential because it may not be possible to keep information anonymous/confidential.
• Privacy 


  The right to control the flow of information about themselves.
• Difficult to keep privacy maintained as it may affect participants behaviour.
• Right to withdraw


  Participants should be told that they can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable. the right to require that their own data be destroyed.
• Researcher might not want to offer participants right to withdraw because the one that left may be more highly motivated or less emotionally sensitive.
• Protection from harm 


  Participants should not experience negative physical effects nor should they experience negative psychological effects. Should be in the same state they were in the beginning.
• Researcher may find it difficult to fully protect participants because it may not be possible to estimate harm.
• Deception


  Participants not told the true research aims of study and/or not told what they will be required to do so.
• Researchers might want to deceive participants to reduce demand characteristics.
• Debriefing 


  Post research interview designed to inform participants about the true nature of study
• What are seme ways of dealing with ethical issues?

  • Presumptive consent - a method of dealing with lack of informed consent or deception.
  • Ask a group of people who are similar to the participants whether they would agree to take part in the study. If this group of people consent, presume that the real participants would agree as well.
  • Ethics committee - approve a study before it begins. Looks at all possible ethical issues and at how the researchers plan to deal with these, weighing up the value of the research against the possible ethical costs.