issues and debates

• What is gender bias?

  The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes.
• What is alpha bias?

  A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women.
• What are the consequences of alpha bias?

  Theories may devalue one gender compared to the other, typically women.
• What are examples of alpha bias in psychology?

  1. Psychodynamic explanations suggest females are less moral than males.
  2. Wilson's theory claims promiscuous females go against their nature.
  3. Schizophrenia diagnosed more in men due to women's symptoms being masked.
• What does androcentrism refer to?

  The comparison of all behavior according to a 'male' standard.
• How has PMS been criticized in terms of androcentrism?

  It trivializes female emotion, particularly anger.
• What is an example of beta bias in research?

  Using male lab mice for fight or flight response studies and generalizing to females.
• What is universality in psychology?

  The aim to develop theories that apply to all people, regardless of differences.
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of feminist psychology?

  Strengths:

  • Argues for real differences influenced by social stereotypes.
  • Aims to counter androcentrism.

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • May overlook biological explanations of behavior.
• What is reverse alpha bias?

  The development of theories that emphasize women's strengths.
• How has beta bias benefited women?

  It has allowed greater access to educational and occupational opportunities.
• What assumptions need to be challenged regarding gender bias?

  Many theories portray women as passive and men as aggressive in competition.
• What is cultural bias?

  The tendency to judge all cultures based on one's own cultural assumptions.
• What is cultural relativism?

  The view that behavior and morals cannot be judged outside their cultural context.
• How can cultural relativism lead to alpha bias?

  It can lead psychologists to overlook universals by assuming real differences exist.
• What is an example of beta bias in defining mental disorders?

  Assuming behaviors considered abnormal in one culture are abnormal in all cultures.
• What are examples of alpha and beta bias in cross-cultural research?

  Alpha bias:

  • Assumption of real differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures.

  
  

  Beta bias:

  • Using IQ tests universally without considering cultural differences.
• What is ethnocentrism?

  The evaluation of other cultures using one's own cultural standards.
• How can indigenous psychologies counter ethnocentrism?

  By developing different theories in different cultural contexts.
• What is the emic-etic distinction in psychology?

  The emic approach focuses on cultural uniqueness, while the etic approach seeks universals.
• What did Smith and Bond find regarding cultural bias in research methods?

  66% of studies were American, indicating institutionalized cultural bias.
• What are the consequences of cultural bias in psychology?

  It can lead to stereotyping and discrimination against certain cultural groups.
• What is the significance of universal behaviors in psychology?

  Universal behaviors suggest that some psychological principles apply across cultures.
• What is determinism in psychology?

  The belief that behavior is controlled by factors beyond individual control.
• What are the three types of determinism?

  Biological, environmental, and psychic determinism.
• What is biological determinism?

  The view that behavior is caused by internal biological forces beyond control.
• How does environmental determinism explain behavior?

  It suggests behavior is caused by previous experiences through conditioning.
• What does psychic determination imply about behavior?

  Behavior is determined by innate drives and early experiences leading to unconscious conflicts.
• What is free will in psychology?

  The power to make choices about behavior without external or internal constraints.
• What is hard determinism?

  The view that all behavior can be predicted by internal and external forces.
• How does behaviorism relate to determinism?

  Behaviorism suggests that all behavior is a product of conditioning, indicating hard determinism.
• What does social learning theory suggest about behavior?

  Behavior is the product of vicarious reinforcement and mediational processes.
• What is soft determinism?

  It allows for some element of free will while suggesting all events have a cause.
• How does the cognitive approach relate to soft determinism?

  It suggests individuals can reason and make decisions within their cognitive limits.
• Why is scientific research important in psychology?

  It is based on the belief that all events have a cause, allowing for prediction and control of behavior.
• What is an independent variable in scientific research?

  It is manipulated to have an effect on the dependent variable.
• How can a 'cause and effect' relationship be established in research?

  By repeating research under controlled conditions and performing statistical tests.
• What does the evaluation of determinism suggest about genetic determinism?

  100% genetic determinism is unlikely to be found for any behavior.
• What similarity percentage for intelligence was found in monozygotic twins?

  80%
• What does the interactionist standpoint suggest about behavior?

  It suggests that genes do not entirely determine behavior.