Biological explanations

• What percentage of schizophrenia patients suffered from post-traumatic stress disorder according to Buckley et al (2009)?

  29%
• What does the high percentage of depression among schizophrenia patients suggest about the relationship between these disorders?

  It suggests that schizophrenia and depression may be the same disorder.
• What issue does the frequent co-diagnosis of schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders raise?

  It raises issues of validity in the diagnosis of schizophrenia.
• Who suggested that there may be gender bias in the diagnosis of schizophrenia?

  Longenecker et al (2010)
• What did Cotton et al (2009) suggest about genetic susceptibility to schizophrenia in men and women?

  There are no differences in genetic susceptibility for men and women.
• How might dispositional traits of women affect the diagnosis of schizophrenia?

  These traits may mask symptoms or distort their severity.
• What cultural bias is suggested by Escobar et al (2012) regarding the diagnosis of schizophrenia?

  African Americans are more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia.
• Why might the phenomenon of hearing voices be viewed differently in African cultures compared to Western cultures?

  It may be seen as a sign of increased spirituality in African cultures.
• What does Gottesman (1991) suggest about the genetic basis of schizophrenia?

  Schizophrenia runs in families, indicating a genetic basis.
• What are the concordance rates for schizophrenia in monozygotic twins according to Gottesman (1991)?

  48%
• What does the absence of 100% concordance rates in twins suggest about schizophrenia?

  It suggests that environmental influences also play a role.
• What did Ripke et al (2013) identify in their genome-wide study related to schizophrenia?

  22 loci associated with schizophrenia.
• What does it mean that schizophrenia is a polygenic disorder?

  It means multiple candidate genes contribute to its risk.
• What does the original dopamine hypothesis suggest about dopamine levels in schizophrenia?

  It suggests that hyperdopaminergia is responsible for schizophrenia.
• What does the revised dopamine hypothesis propose about dopamine levels in schizophrenia?

  It proposes that hypodopaminergia in the cortex is responsible for schizophrenia.
• How do hyperdopaminergia and hypodopaminergia contribute to schizophrenia?

  Both contribute in different areas of the brain.
• What positive symptom of schizophrenia may be linked to hyperdopaminergia in Broca's area?

  Auditory hallucinations.
• What negative symptoms of schizophrenia may be linked to hypodopaminergia in the prefrontal cortex?

  Speech poverty and avolition.
• What implications does the dopamine hypothesis have for drug treatments of schizophrenia?

  It supports the use of antipsychotics/dopamine antagonists.
• What are neural correlates in the context of schizophrenia?

  • Specific patterns of cortical activity
  • Neural structures associated with psychological symptoms
  • Assumed to contribute to those symptoms
• What did Juckel et al (2006) find regarding the ventral striatum and avolition?

  Low activation levels in the ventral striatum may be associated with avolition.
• What did Allen et al (2007) conclude about auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia?

  They are associated with functional abnormalities in the anterior cingulate and left temporal cortex.
• What did Brown et al (2002) find about the risk of having offspring with schizophrenia?

  The risk increases by over 1.3% if the father is over 50 years old.
• What does the evidence suggest about the heritability of schizophrenia?

  It suggests a strong heritability coefficient and biological basis.
• What did Tauscher et al (2014) find regarding antipsychotics and the dopamine hypothesis?

  Antipsychotics alleviate symptoms by acting as dopamine antagonists.
• What criticism do Moghaddam and Javitt (2012) have regarding the dopamine hypothesis?

  They argue it emphasizes dopamine's role too much, neglecting other neurotransmitters.
• What is a major issue with using neural correlates to explain schizophrenia?

  Such evidence is correlational and does not establish cause and effect.
• What are the psychological explanations for the development of schizophrenia?

  • Abnormal family communication styles
  • Schizophrenogenic mother
  • Double-bind theory
  • High levels of expressed emotion
• What characterizes the schizophrenogenic mother according to Fromm-Reichmann?

  She is cold and rejecting, creating a tense family climate.
• What does double-bind theory suggest about family communication?

  Children receive mixed messages from parents, leading to confusion.
• How does expressed emotion affect patients with schizophrenia?

  High levels of expressed emotion can lead to stress and relapse.
• What did Frith et al (1992) suggest about dysfunctional thought processes in schizophrenia?

  They contribute to the development of schizophrenia.
• What is metarepresentation in the context of schizophrenia?

  It is the cognitive ability to differentiate between one's own actions and those of others.
• How is thought insertion related to metarepresentation in schizophrenia?

  Dysfunctions in metarepresentation can lead to auditory hallucinations like thought insertion.