memory

• What does coding refer to in memory studies?

  Coding refers to the format or ‘type’ of information stored in each memory store.
• How does coding differ between short-term memory and long-term memory?

  Coding is acoustic in short-term memory and semantic in long-term memory.
• What did Baddeley (1966) demonstrate about memory recall?

  He found that more mistakes are made when recalling acoustically-similar words immediately after learning.
• What is the capacity of short-term memory according to Miller?

  The capacity of short-term memory is thought to be 7 +/- 2 items.
• What is the mean letter span demonstrated by Jacobs?

  The mean letter span is 7.3.
• What is the mean digit span demonstrated by Jacobs?

  The mean digit span is 9.3.
• What does duration refer to in memory studies?

  Duration refers to the amount of time that information can be stored in each memory store.
• What is the duration of short-term memory?

  The duration of short-term memory is 18-30 seconds.
• What did Petersen et al (1959) find regarding short-term memory duration?

  They found that increasing retention intervals decreased the accuracy of recall of consonant syllables.
• What is the duration of long-term memory?

  The duration of long-term memory is unlimited.
• What did Bahrick et al (1975) find about long-term memory recall over time?

  They found that photo recognition of classmates decreased from 90% to 70% between 15 and 46 years after graduating.
• What are the key issues with Jacobs' historical psychological research?

  • Lack of standardisation
  • Poor appreciation of scientific methods
  • Potential confounding variables affecting recall accuracy
• What is a strength of Bahrick et al's 1975 study?

  • Use of meaningful stimuli
  • High ecological validity
  • Findings can be generalized to real-life situations
• What are the key issues with Petersen et al and Miller et al studies?

  • Low mundane realism
  • Use of artificial stimuli
  • Limited generalizability of findings
• What recent research suggests about Miller's estimate of short-term memory capacity?

  Recent research suggests that the capacity of short-term memory is more similar to 4 chunks.
• What does the multi-store memory model (MSM) represent?

  The MSM represents how memory is stored, transferred, retrieved, and forgotten.

  
• What are the three stores in the multi-store memory model?

  The three stores are sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

  
• What is the capacity and duration of the sensory register?

  The sensory register has a huge capacity but a duration of less than half a second.
• How does information pass from the sensory register to short-term memory?

  Information passes from the sensory register to short-term memory if we pay attention to it.
• What is the encoding type of short-term memory?

  Short-term memory is described as being acoustically encoded.
• What is maintenance rehearsal in short-term memory?

  Maintenance rehearsal is when we repeat new information to ourselves to keep it in short-term memory.
• What happens to information without maintenance rehearsal?

  A lack of maintenance rehearsal causes forgetting.
• What is the encoding type of long-term memory?

  Long-term memory is described as being semantically encoded.
• What must occur to remember information from long-term memory?

  Retrieval must occur to transfer information back into short-term memory.
• What are the different types of long-term memory proposed by Tulving et al.?

  • Procedural memory
  • Semantic memory
  • Episodic memory
• How does the multi-store model of memory (MSM) view long-term memory?

  The MSM sees long-term memory as a single, unitary store.

  
• What is the difference in retrieval between episodic and procedural memories?

  Episodic and semantic memories must be recalled consciously, while procedural memories are recalled unconsciously.
• What did Petersen et al. find regarding the neurological basis of semantic and episodic memories?

  Semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, while episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex.
• What is the practical application of differentiating between types of long-term memory?

  • Improved understanding of mild cognitive impairments
  • Targeted treatments for episodic memory issues
• What distinction did Cohen and Squire make regarding memories?

  Cohen and Squire distinguished between declarative (episodic and semantic) and non-declarative (procedural) memories.
• What do the cases of HM and Clive Wearing demonstrate about long-term memory?

  They show that one type of long-term memory may be impaired while others remain unaffected.
• What does the Working Memory Model (WMM) suggest about short-term memory?

  The WMM suggests that short-term memory is made up of the central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

  
• What is the role of the central executive in the WMM?

  The central executive allocates tasks to the three slave systems and has a very limited processing capacity.
• What does the phonological loop do in the WMM?

  The phonological loop processes auditory information and allows for maintenance rehearsal.
• What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

  The capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad is around 4-5 chunks.
• What is the function of the episodic buffer in the WMM?

  The episodic buffer integrates all types of data processed by the other stores and links short-term memory to long-term memory.
• What are the criticisms of the central executive in the WMM?

  • Lack of precise definition
  • Vague term 'process'
  • May consist of several sub-components
• How does Shallice and Warrington’s study of KF support the WMM?

  KF had poor recall for auditory stimuli but better recall for visual stimuli, suggesting separate processing components.
• What do studies of dual-task performance suggest about the central executive?

  They suggest that the central executive has a very limited processing capacity and that slave systems compete for resources.
• What did Braver et al's neuroscanning evidence demonstrate about the central executive?

  It demonstrated a positive correlation between cognitive load and activation levels in the prefrontal cortex.