psychopathology

• What does statistical infrequency imply about a disorder?

  A disorder is abnormal if its frequency is more than two standard deviations away from the mean.
• How is statistical infrequency used in clinical diagnoses?

  It is used as a comparison with a baseline or 'normal' value to assess the severity of the disorder.
• Why might statistical infrequency not always be a negative characteristic?

  Because some abnormal characteristics, like high empathy or an IQ above 130, are not viewed negatively.
• Who proposed the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?

  Rosenhan and Seligman.
• What does the failure to function adequately definition suggest?

  It suggests that individuals may be considered abnormal if their mental state prevents them from leading a 'normal' life.
• What is a strength of the failure to function adequately definition?

  It takes into account the patient's perspective, leading to potentially more accurate diagnoses.
• What is a major weakness of the failure to function adequately definition?

  It may lead to labeling patients as 'strange' or 'crazy', reinforcing negative stereotypes.
• What does the deviation from social norms definition suggest about abnormal behavior?

  It suggests that abnormal behavior is based on straying away from social norms specific to a culture.
• How can cultural differences affect the diagnosis of mental health disorders?

  Diagnoses based on social norms can vary significantly between cultures, leading to potential discrimination.
• What historical example illustrates discrimination in mental health diagnoses?

  The diagnosis of 'nymphomania' in women attracted to working-class men was used to reinforce social class differences.
• What is cultural relativism in the context of mental health definitions?

  Cultural relativism refers to the idea that definitions of abnormality may not apply universally across different cultures.
• Who proposed the deviation from ideal mental health definition?

  Jahoda.
• What criteria did Jahoda identify for ideal mental health?

  Self-actualization, accurate self-perception, absence of distress, normal motivation, and high self-esteem.
• What is a major issue with Jahoda's definition of ideal mental health?

  It may set unrealistic expectations, labeling many as abnormal for not meeting all criteria.
• How does cultural relativism affect Jahoda's definition of ideal mental health?

  Self-actualization may be viewed as selfish in collectivist cultures, limiting its acceptance.
• What are the behavioral characteristics of phobias?

  Panic, avoidance, and endurance.

  
• What physiological response occurs during panic in phobias?

  Heightened physiological arousal due to increased sympathetic nervous system activity.
• How does avoidance behavior impact individuals with phobias?

  It negatively reinforces avoidance, severely impacting daily life.
• What happens during endurance in phobias?

  The patient remains exposed to the phobic stimulus while experiencing heightened anxiety.
• What are the main emotional characteristics of phobias?

  Anxiety and unawareness of the irrationality of the anxiety.
• What cognitive characteristics are associated with phobias?

  Selective attention, irrational beliefs, and cognitive distortions.
• How does selective attention manifest in phobias?

  The patient focuses on the phobic stimulus despite severe anxiety.
• What are irrational beliefs in the context of phobias?

  Incorrect perceptions of the danger posed by the phobic stimulus.
• What are cognitive distortions in phobias?

  Inaccurate perceptions of the phobic stimulus, often appearing grossly distorted.
• What are the behavioral characteristics of depression?

  Changed activity levels, aggression, and changes in sleeping and eating patterns.
• What emotional characteristics are associated with depression?

  Lowered self-esteem, constant poor mood, and high levels of anger.
• What cognitive characteristics are typical in individuals with depression?

  Absolutist thinking, selective attention to negative events, and poor concentration.
• What are the main behavioral characteristics of OCD?

  Compulsions and avoidance behavior.
• What emotional characteristics are associated with OCD?

  Guilt, disgust, depression, and anxiety.
• What cognitive characteristics are typical in individuals with OCD?

  Acknowledgment of excessive and irrational anxiety, development of coping strategies, and obsessive thoughts.
• What theory did Mowrer propose regarding phobias?

  Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning.

  
• How did Watson and Rayner demonstrate classical conditioning in phobias?

  They showed how Little Albert associated fear from a loud bang with a white rat.

  
• What is the role of operant conditioning in maintaining phobias?

  It reinforces avoidance behaviors, allowing individuals to avoid anxiety associated with the phobic stimulus.

  
• What is a strength of Mowrer's theory of phobias?

  It explains the mechanisms behind the acquisition and maintenance of phobias.
• What alternative explanation did Buck provide for avoidance behavior in phobias?

  He suggested that safety is a greater motivator for avoidance than simply avoiding anxiety.
• What did Seligman suggest about the acquisition of phobias?

  We are more likely to develop phobias towards 'prepared' stimuli that posed threats to our ancestors.
• What is systematic desensitization?

  A behavioral therapy designed to reduce phobic anxiety through gradual exposure to the phobic stimulus.
• What principle does systematic desensitization rely upon?

  Counterconditioning, learning a new response of relaxation to the phobic stimulus.
• What is the purpose of creating an anxiety hierarchy in systematic desensitization?

  To order situations involving the phobic stimulus from least to most nerve-wracking.
• What evidence supports the effectiveness of systematic desensitization?

  Gilroy et al. found that patients treated with systematic desensitization showed reduced symptoms compared to a control group.