Gender

• Sex role stereotypes and androgyny:

  A01 - sex role stereotypes

  Sex role stereotypes are the roles that are expected of an individual by society, according to their gender. The traditional view is that they are beneficial to a persons psychological health, however Bem argues that they are stifling to an individual's personality and that can have a negative effect on mental health, even leading to mental disorder.
• Sex role stereotypes and androgyny:

  A01 - androgyny

  Bem introduced the psychological concept of androgyny in the 1970s as she found that the traditional set roles were too restrictive. She argued that people should adopt a balance of both male and female characteristics: androgyny.
• Sex role stereotypes and androgyny:

  A01 - BSRI

  The Bem sex role inventory (BSRI) was created by Bem to test her ideas about androgyny. She asked 100 American undergraduates which personality traits they thought were desirable for men and women. From this, she categorised 20 male traits, 20 female traits and 20 neural traits as distractors. Each person would rank now much they identify with each trait on the likert scale 1-7. The 'male' scores would be added up as well as the 'female'. Is a person has high levels of M, low levels of F, they would be categorised as masculine, the opposite occurs for female. Is the person has high levels of F and M, they are categorised as androgynous. If the person has low levels of each they are categorised as undifferentiated.
• Sex role stereotypes and androgyny:

  A01 - gender schema theory

  In 1983, Bem reformulated her approach in terms of what she called 'gender schema theory'. This theory suggests that the difference between an androgynous and a typically sex-typed person is a cognitive shift. An androgynous person responds to decisions on how to behave independently from gender concepts, whereas a typically sex - typed person uses gender schemas to determine how it is appropriate to behave. She believes that people who have a 'freer' cognitive style are psychologically healthier.
• Sex role stereotypes and androgyny:

  A03 - support for parental influence

  Support for parental influence, Smith and Lloyd.

  * Smith and Lloyd showed that parents enforce comply to sex role stereotypes, treating boys and girls differently.

  * 32 mothers were videotaped playing with baby a that is not their own for 10 minutes, the baby is 6 months old and dressed and named as a boy/girl. However this gender appearance is not necessarily consistent with the child's sex. There were 7 toys present 2 masculine, 2 feminine, 3 neutral.

  * If the mother thought she was playing with the boy she would enforce more 'male' appropriate toys and the opposite is occurred when they believed they were playing with a girl.

  * However, this research can be criticized for being gynocentric and moving a small sample size, therefore, the research may lack population validity.
• Sex role stereotypes and androgyny:

  A03 - support for relationship between androgyny and psychological health

  Support for the relationship between androgyny and psychological health.

  * Positive correlation between androgyny and psychological health.

  * Prakash tested 100 married females in India on the personal attribute scale (another test for androgyny), and also on general psychological health measures.

  * Females with more androgyny had lower scores of depression, which supports the view that androgyny has a psychoprotective effect.

  * however, difficult to generalise as small sample size, and low population validity.
• Sex role stereotypes and androgyny:

  A03 - real world applications

  Real world applications:

  * If androgyny is better for mental health then it seems obvious to raise children to assume characteristics free of their sex-role.

  * There are a few case studies of this idea - one child was raised with no specific gender identity, although he had the knowledge that he was biologically a boy. There was lots of protest against this boys parents, many people believed it amounted to child abuse.

  * This represents how strongly people feel about sex-role stereotypes.

  * However, there are issues with the generalisability of this study as case studies are ideographic and lack population validity.
• Sex role stereotypes and androgyny:

  A03 - validity of the BSRI

  Validity of the BSRI:

  * There may be an intervening variable to the BSRI - self-esteem. As many of the adjectives are socially desirable, people who are more confident are more likely to rank higher in the BSRI due to social desirability bias. Contrastingly, someone who is less confidant is more likely to conform and only select the masculine/femmine traits.

  * The validity of the inventory is criticised in serves of response bias, Gaa analysed data from 133 students and found that those students who were classed as androgynous simply had higher overall scores than those classed as masculine, feminine. This can be explained by a tendency for some people to select higher answers on the likert scale and therefore become classed as androgynous. However this study only showed the tendencies of students so this lacks population validity.

  * Finally, the BSRI can be criticised in terms of temporal validity. The adjectives were selected in the 1970s and attitudes towards gender have moved on hugely since then. Hoffman et al. conducted a more recent study in 2001 - asking 400 undergrads to rate the items on the BSRI as masculine or feminine and found that the only 2 items still endorsed as masculine/feminine were the adjectives 'masculine and 'feminine'.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones In sex and gender:

  A01 - typical chromosome patterns

  Each person has 23 pairs of chromosomes and each of these chromosomes carries hundreds of genes containing instructions about physical and behavioural characteristics. One pair or chromosomes are called sex chromosomes as they determine an individuals sex. Typical female chromosome patterns are XX and typical male chromosome patterns are XY, this controls their internal and external genitalia.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones In sex and gender:

  A01 - atypical chromosome patterns - klinefelters syndrome

  Due to an XXY configuration. About 1 in 1000 males have this condition, they tend to be taller than average, have less muscular coordination and less facial hair and more breast tissue due to reduced levels of testosterone. These men are often infertile, have lower IQ and are more immature.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones In sex and gender:

  A01 - atypical chromosome patterns - Turner's syndrome

  Due to an XO configuration, this means the second sex chromosome is at least partly or completely missing. This occurs in 1 in 2000 females. The characteristics include being shorter than average, lack of regular periods due to an underdeveloped ovaries, the individual may also have a wide neck and lower maths ability.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones In sex and gender:

  A01 - the role of hormones (basic)

  Hormones are determined by genes/chromosomes. For example, testosterone is produced in larger quantities in males, and oxytocin and oestrogen are mainly produced in women.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones In sex and gender:

  A01 - testosterone

  Testosterone is produced prenatally and affects the development of genitalia. However, some XY individuals have an insensitivity to these hormones which may cause external male genitalia to not develop.

  Testosterone also affects brain development both prenatally and later in childhood. XX females exposed prenatally so large doses of testosterone later showed more tomboyish behaviour and greater interest in male type activities.

  The surge of testosterone during puberty is responsible for secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones In sex and gender:

  A01 - oestrogen

  Oestrogen is the default hormone for women,a genetic male will develop as a female unless exposed to testosterone.

  This means that females do not need hormones to direct prenatal genital development. however, the presence of oestrogen has other prenatal effects ie. smaller brain size. Oestrogen has a major role in puberty onwards, promoting secondary sexual characteristics ie. breast development.

  Oestrogen also has an important role in directing the menstrual cycle.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones In sex and gender:

  A01 - oxytosin

  Oxytocin is a 'love' hormone promotes feelings of bonding in both men and women, oxytocin is produced in the pituitary gland and promotes calmness. This is important in situations such as breastfeeding because it causes milk to be produced. In both men and women, oxytocin is related to orgasms and faster healing.

  At times of stress oxytocin dampens the fight/flight response, in females it is important in the tend and befriend response (Taylor).
• The role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender:

  A03 - challenging biological determinism

  Challenging biological determinism:

  John money claimed that biological sex is not the main factor in gender development, he argued that the see you are raised is more important than biology. In the case study of David Reimer who was a biological male that was raised as a female after a botched circumcision. Initially, this case study supported these views but ultimately David showed a strong male identity despite being raised as a girl. This highlights the ultimate individuality of each case and shows that gender is a complex concept that cannot be explained by simply biology or social influence but rather an indeterminable mix of the two.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender:

  A03 - the explanation is overly biologically deterministic

  This explanation is overly biologically deterministic.

  In some cases of abnormal hormone expression, genetic sex doesn't match external genitalia, and gender is a result of genes, hormones, the sex they were raised and socialisation. The outcome of gender in a person can be said to be unpredictable. For example, congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) occurs when females have prenatally high levels of male hormones, resulting in varying levels of external male genitalia. Research into this shows that gender assigned at birth is accepted by some individuals but not others. This shows both the importance of other factors in gender development, but also the individual differences apparent in gender identification.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender:

  A03 - the role of culture and social influences

  The role of culture and social influences:

  There is a case study on the Batista family that highlights the importance of culture influences in abnormal gender development. 4 children were born (genetically XY) with external female genitalia and raised as girls. During puberty, there was a surge of testosterone which caused their male genitalia to appear externally, this had not appeared earlier due to an insensitivity to testosterone. They accepted their new role as males without any difficulty. The main suggested reason for this easy transition is the culture, the community they were in accepted much more fluidity in terms of gender roles, which appears much more rigid in western cultures.
• The role of chromosomes and hormones in sex and gender:

  A03 - real world applications

  Real world applications:

  In the past, the common practise for intersex conditions such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is to perform surgery to make the child look more normal in infancy. Now, the intersex society of North America recommends that a gender should be assigned but no surgery should take place until the individual can make informed decisions themselves. Furthermore, genetically testing allows conditions such as Turner's syndrome to be discovered early and therefore treated with hormones etc. This shows how further research allows for better lifestyles for those affected.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - Kohlberg's theory:

  A01 - Kohlberg's theory basics

  The cognitive developmental approach emphasises the role of thinking in the process of gender development. Kohlberg's theory is based on the idea that gender development occurs in stages as we get older due to physical changes in the brain. The brain becomes associated with increasingly complicated and more abstract thinking. This means that changes in gender thinking are solely to do with the age related changes in cognitive capabilities, therefore development occurs in stages.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - Kohlberg's theory:

  A01 - gender labelling

  Stage 1: gender labelling.

  This stage occurs around 2-3 years. Children at this age label themselves as boy/girl or man/woman. This is based in outward appearance only, such as hairstyles and clothing - these labels are able to change if the outward appear changes. Piaget described the child's way of thinking at this stage as pre-operational, it lacks internal logic.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - Kohlberg's theory:

  A01 - gender stability

  Stage 2: gender stability.

  From the age of 3-4, children recognise something that is consistent over time, boys grow into men and girls grow into women, therefore they know that gender is stable. However, they do not recognise yet that gender is also consistent across all situations, they may believe that if a girl does a male activity, she becomes a boy. These children are still swayed by outward appearances (have not yet developed a concept of conservation). McConaghy found that when children under 5 were shown a drawing of a doll wearing a dress with male genitals visible through it, the children would still assume the doll to be a girl.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - Kohlberg's theory:

  A01 - gender constancy

  Stage 3: gender constancy.

  From the ages of 4-7, children come to realise that gender is constant across all situations, they have developed full gender constancy. At this point, the child starts to learn about gender-appropriate behaviour.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - Kohlberg's theory:

  A03 - research support for gender labelling:

  Research support for gender labelling:

  Thompson, sound that 2 year olds were 76% correct in identifying their sex, whereas, 3 year olds were 90% correct. This shows an increasing ability to label themselves as presented in Kohlberg's theory.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - Kohlberg's theory:

  A03 - research support for gender constancy

  Research support for gender constancy:

  Slaby and Frey asked young children a set of questions that consider their lever of gender constancy. For example, 'Could you be a boy/girl is you wanted to be?' They found that children who scored high on gender constancy showed greatest interest in same sex models. This supports Kohlberg's theory that increasing constancy leads children to pay more attention to gender-appropriate models, furthering gender development.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - Kohlberg's theory:

  A03 - age differences

  Age differences:

  Slaby and Frey found that gender constancy can appear at a younger age than Kohlberg's suggests, sometimes even long as 5 years old. While their research still supports the basic idea of development occurring in stages due to brain development, it does suggest that an adjustment should be made to Kohlberg's timeline. It is suggested that Kohlberg's timeline may be more accurate in children when he suggested it in 1966, however in the current day, children are exposed to different kinds of gender information through the media and so may develop gender constancy at a younger age. Therefore, Kohlberg's theory can be criticised for lacking temporal validity.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - Kohlberg's theory:

  A03 - gender differences


  Gender differences:

  Slaby and Frey found that boys tend to show gender constancy before girls. Huston explains this by realising that it may be easier for girls to take on more 'masculine' activities but harder for boys to take on 'feminine' activities. He explains this due to social learning theory: the male role models that boys look up to tend to be more powerful than the female role models that girls follow, therefore boys are more likely to identify with their role models and form similar gender behaviours to them. Furthermore, boys are more likely to be punished for gender inappropriate behaviour than girls and from this learn gender appropriate behaviour quickly. this means that Kohlberg's theory is overly reductionist due to ignoring the input of social learning theory.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - Kohlberg's theory:

  A03 - Gender constancy may not be required to understand gender appropriate behaviour:


  Gender constancy may not be required to understand gender appropriate behaviour:

  Research does not support Kohlberg's claims that children do not begin to acquire information about gender appropriate behaviour until they achieve gender constancy. Martin and Little found that children under the age of four showed no signs of gender stability or constancy but they do show and follow strong stereotypes about what girls and boys 'should' do. This may follow social learning theory and the instructions of parents/teachers or it could follow the predictions of gender schema theory (another cognitive explanation to gender).
• Cognitive explanations for gender - gender schema theory:

  A01 - gender schema theory outline

  Gender schema theory and Kohlberg's theory have two differentiating factors: firstly, gender schema theory (by Martin and Halverson) argues that gender relevant behaviours can be learnt before gender constancy is achieved whereas Kohlberg believes that no gender relevant behaviours can be learned until after gender constancy. Martin and Halverson propose that gender labelling is enough for a child to identify as a boy or girl and take interest in what behaviours are appropriate for that gender. Secondly, Martin and Halverson go further than Kohlberg and suggest how the stereotypes or schemas affect late behaviour in terms of memory and attention.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - gender schema theory:

  A01 - schemas


  The main concept in gender schema theory is the idea of a schema, children learn schemas related to gender from their interactions with other children and adults as well as the media. means that schemas are related to cultural norms. Schemas have the function of organising and structuring other information that is presented to children. They learn about which toys are appropriate for each gender, what to wear, hairstyles and so on.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - gender schema theory:

  A01 - ingroup and out group schemas


  Ingroup and outgroup schemes:

  The term ingroup refers to the groups with which a person identifies, being a girl means that identify with other girls (their ingroup) etc. once a child has identified with any ingroups this leads them to positively evaluate their own group and negatively evaluate the outgroup. This evaluation enhances their self-esteem and motivates a child to be like their own group and avoid the behaviours of the other group. This also leads them to actively seek information about what their ingroup does. According to gender schema theory, from an early age before gender constancy, children focus on ingroup schemas and avoids behaviours that belong to outgroup schemas.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - gender schema theory:

  A01 - resilience of gender beliefs


  Resilience of gender beliefs:

  An important aspect of gender theory is that it can explain the power of gender beliefs, they allow the children to hold very fixed gender attitude because they ignore any information they encounter that is not consistent with ingroup information. For example, if a boy sees a film with a male nurse that information is ignored because the man is not behaving consistency with the boys ingroup schema. The boy does not change his existing schema and this way schemas have a profound effect on what is remembered and our perceptions of the world around us.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - gender schema theory:

  A01 - peer relationships


  Peer relationships:

  Spending time with the ingroup needs children to believe that all girls share the same interests and all boys share the same interests, this leads children to spend less time with the opposite sex as they play with different toys and are therefore considered less fun. Children also develop knowledge of potential consequences associated with different social relationships, for example teasing with the ingroup if they play with the opposite sex.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - gender schema theory:

  A03 - research support for render schemas without constancy


  Research support for gender schemes without constancy:

  Research supports the prediction from gender schema theory - the children begin acquiring information about gender schemas before they reach gender stability around the age of three. Martin and Little found that children under the age 3 of showed no signs of gender stability or constancy, however they did display strong gender stereotypes about what boys and girls 'should' do. This shows that they have formed a gender schema before gender constancy, contrary to what Kohlberg suggested, in line with Gender schema theory.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - gender schema theory:

  A03 - gender identity occurs even earlier


  Gender identity occurs even earlier:

  There is evidence that children can label their gender ingroup earlier than previously indicated. Zosuls recorded samples of children's language and observed them playing to identify when they first started labelling themselves as a girl or a boy. They concluded that children were using gender labels by 19 months however, Bandura provides more recent evidence to show that children present gender relevant preferences earlier than gender identity, challenging the ideologies of gender schema theory.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - gender schema theory:

  A03 -gender schemas may distort information


  Gender schemas may distort information:

  In Martin and Halverson's study, it was initially shown that when presented with inconsistent gender information, gender schemas will enable the child to forget this information, to preserve ingroup schemas. Their study also showed that when children were shown inconsistent pictures, they distorted the information. For example, if they were shown a boy holding a doll, the schema may distort this information to show a girl holding a doll. These distorted memories also serve to maintain ingroup schemas.
• Cognitive explanations for gender - gender schema theory:

  A03 -gender schemas organise memory


  Gender schemas organise memory:

  Martin and Halverson, found that when children were asked to recall pictures of people, children under six recalled more gender consistent ones ie. male firefighter or female teacher, than inconsistent ones, ie. male nurse. Therefore children care more about ingroup than outgroup schemas.

  Further evidence to support this comes from Bradbard: he told 4 - 9 year olds that certain gender neutral items were either masculine or feminine items. These children showed greater interest in the toys labelled as ingroup and one week later they were able to remember more details about ingroup than outgroup objects.
• Psychodynamic approach to gender development:

  A01 - the psychodynamic explanation overview


  The psychodynamic approach to explaining gender focuses on Freud's psychosexual stages, he specifies that gender development occurs in the phallic stage where a child is 3-6 years old. At this time, a child's libido is said to be focussed on their genitals. The child's gender identity is resolved within this stage through either the Oedipus complex or the electra complex.
• Psychodynamic approach to gender development:

  A01 - the Oedipus complex


  The Oedipus complex happens in males in the phallic stage, the boy starts to develop a sexual desire for his mother. This causes the boy to become jealous of his father and then fears that his father will castrate him. This conflict is resolved by identifying and then internalising his father's gender presentation, this becomes his super ego. The boy substitutes his desire for his mother with the desire for other women and his gender is resolved.
• Psychodynamic approach to gender development:

  A01 - the electra complex


  The electra complex happens in females in the phallic stage. The girl is initially attracted to her mother, but this ends when the girl discovers that her mother doesn't have a penis. She blames her mother for her own lack of penis believing that she was castrated, she develops penis envy. Girl transfers her sexual desires to the father this complex is reserved when the girl converts her to a wish to have a baby, this reduces her anger to her mother, identifies with her mother and internalises her gender behaviours.