cloning and biotechnology

• What is biotechnology?

  Biotechnology is the industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs, or other products.
• What is natural cloning in plants?

  • Asexual reproduction
  • Offspring is genetically identical to the parent
  • Example: vegetative propagation
• What is an example of natural cloning in plants?

  Vegetative propagation.
• How does vegetative propagation occur?

  It occurs when a plant body part is separated and develops into a new plant.
• How can the English Elm be propagated?

  By removing suckers from the tree during autumn and growing them in a nursery bed.
• What is a simple cloning technique in plants?

  Plant cuttings.
• How are plant cuttings encouraged to grow?

  By using plant hormones on the cut end.
• What is an example of natural cloning in animals?

  The formation of twins by embryo splitting.
• What is artificial cloning in plants?

  • Involves tissue culture
  • An explant is taken from the shoot tip
  • Placed on a nutrient-rich growth medium
• What happens to cells in tissue culture?

  They divide by mitosis to form a callus.
• What is the purpose of plant hormones in tissue culture?

  To stimulate shoot growth from callus cells.
• What is micropropagation used for?

  To produce plants that are difficult to grow from seed or have been genetically modified.
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of artificial plant cloning?

  Advantages:

  • Large number of plants produced easily
  • Independent of season or weather

  
  

  Disadvantages:

  • Lack of genetic variation
  • Harder to grow than sowing seeds
• What are the methods of artificial cloning in animals?

  • Nuclear transfer
  • Embryo splitting
• How does nuclear transfer work?

  A differentiated cell is fused with an enucleated egg cell, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother.
• What is embryo splitting?

  It is the separation of cells from a developing embryo to produce genetically identical organisms.
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of artificial animal cloning?

  Advantages:

  • Quick cloning of beneficial animals
  • Preservation of endangered species

  
  

  Disadvantages:

  • Lack of genetic variation
  • Health uncertainties for cloned animals
• Why are microorganisms used in biotechnological processes?

  • Easy to grow and rapid growth
  • Can be genetically engineered
  • Used in various production processes
• What are some processes that use microorganisms?

  Brewing, baking, cheese making, yoghurt production, penicillin production, insulin production, and bioremediation.
• What are the two types of cultures for growing microorganisms?

  • Pure culture: contains a single microorganism
  • Mixed culture: contains different species
• What are the phases of the growth curve of microorganisms?

  1. Lag phase: adjustment to the environment
  2. Log phase: exponential growth
  3. Stationary phase: maximum population size
  4. Decline phase: death of organisms
• What occurs during the lag phase of microorganism growth?

  Microorganisms adjust to the environment, and the population remains constant.
• What happens during the log phase of microorganism growth?

  The population size grows exponentially as nutrients are sufficient.
• What characterizes the stationary phase of microorganism growth?

  The population size reaches its maximum due to decreasing nutrient levels and toxic substance buildup.
• What occurs during the decline phase of microorganism growth?

  Lack of nutrients and increased toxic products cause the death of organisms.
• What is the difference between batch culture and continuous culture?

  • Batch culture: closed fermenter, nutrients added once, products removed at the end
  • Continuous culture: open fermenter, nutrients added continuously, products removed steadily
• What is a disadvantage of batch culture in case of contamination?

  Only a single batch is lost.
• What is a disadvantage of continuous culture in case of contamination?

  It can lead to a huge amount of product lost.
• What conditions are important to maximize product yield in microorganism cultures?

  • Maintain optimum temperature
  • Sufficient nutrient supply
  • Constant pH
  • Aerobic conditions
• Why is it important to maintain aseptic conditions in microorganism cultures?

  To prevent unwanted organisms from competing for nutrients and space.
• What are the methods of enzyme immobilisation?

  Adsorption, covalent bonding, entrapment, and membrane separation.
• What is adsorption in enzyme immobilisation?

  • Enzymes bind to a support
  • Through hydrophobic and ionic interactions
• What is covalent bonding in enzyme immobilisation?

  • Enzymes covalently bind to a support
  • With the help of a cross-linking agent
• What is entrapment in enzyme immobilisation?

  • Enzymes are trapped in a semi-permeable material
  • Allows passage of substrate and product only
• What is membrane separation in enzyme immobilisation?

  • Partially permeable membrane separates enzymes from substrate
• What is an example of an immobilised enzyme used in biotechnology?

  Glucose isomerase for conversion of glucose to fructose.
• What is an advantage of using immobilised enzymes?

  The product is not contaminated with the enzyme, removing the need for filtering or purification.
• How do immobilised enzymes respond to temperature changes?

  They are less susceptible to the effects of temperature.