Memory

• What is the definition of capacity in memory?

  It is a measure of the amount of information that can be stored in memory.
• What does coding refer to in memory?

  Coding refers to the way that information is modified so it can be stored in memory.
• What forms can information be stored in memory?

  Information can be stored in the form of visual, acoustic, or semantic codes.
• What is the definition of duration in memory?

  Duration is a measure of how long a memory can be stored before it is no longer available.
• What was the method used in Peterson and Peterson’s study on STM duration?

  Participants were given a nonsense consonant triad and a three-digit number to count down from during a retention period.
• What were the retention periods used in Peterson and Peterson’s study?

  The retention periods were 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 seconds.
• What did Baddeley’s study on coding in LTM and STM involve?

  Participants were given word lists that were semantically similar, acoustically different, and vice versa.
• What were the findings of Baddeley’s study regarding STM and LTM coding?

  Participants struggled short-term with acoustically similar words and long-term with semantically similar words.
• What is proactive interference?

  Proactive interference refers to when past learning interferes with attempts to learn something new.
• What is retroactive interference?

  Retroactive interference refers to when current attempts at learning interfere with the recollection of past learning.
• What was the focus of Goodwin’s study on state-dependent forgetting?

  Goodwin researched state-dependent forgetting by having participants learn a word list either drunk or sober.
• What were the results of Goodwin’s study on state-dependent forgetting?

  Recall of the words was best when participants were in the same state (drunk or sober) during both encoding and recall.
• Who studied the case of HM?

  Scoville and Milner studied HM.
• What was the outcome of HM's surgery?

  HM was unable to form new long-term memories but could form short-term memories.
• What was the focus of Abernathy’s study on context-dependent forgetting?

  Abernathy researched context-dependent forgetting by testing students in different conditions.
• What were the results of Abernathy’s study on context-dependent forgetting?

  Results were best when students were tested in their usual room by their usual instructor.
• What are the components of the Cognitive Interview?

  • Mental reinstatement of events
  • Report everything
  • Change the order
  • Change perspective
• What was the focus of Johnson and Scott’s study on the effects of anxiety on EWT?

  Participants heard an argument and then saw a man run past holding either a pen or a knife.
• What were the findings of Johnson and Scott’s study regarding anxiety and EWT accuracy?

  Identification of the man was 49% accurate in low anxiety and 33% in high anxiety scenarios.
• What are the two types of declarative memory?

  • Semantic Memory
  • Episodic Memory
• What is the definition of procedural memory?

  Procedural memory is concerned with knowing how to do things, which become automatic through repetition.
• Who conducted research on the effects of misleading information on EWT?

  Loftus and Palmer conducted research on the effects of misleading information on EWT.
• What did Tulving and Pearlstone's research on retrieval failure involve?

  They gave participants a list of 48 words from 12 different categories and tested recall with and without retrieval cues.
• What were the findings of Tulving and Pearlstone's study on retrieval failure?

  Recall was 40% accurate without retrieval cues and 60% accurate with category cues.
• What are cues in regards to memory?

  Cues are things that serve as triggers to a memory.
• What is the definition of semantic memory?

  Semantic memory is concerned with knowledge of facts, like the capital city of a country.
• What is the definition of episodic memory?

  Episodic memory is concerned with the knowledge of life events, such as the first day of school.
• What is the definition of eyewitness testimony?

  Eyewitness testimony refers to the ability of a person to remember events they have witnessed.
• What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?

  • Negative thoughts causing negative emotions
  • Irrational thoughts including worthlessness
  • Self-fulfilling prophecies (e.g., believing you'll fail leads to reduced studying)
• How are phobias initiated through classical conditioning?

  A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce fear.
• What is systematic desensitisation?

  • Treatment for phobias
  • Replaces fear with relaxation
  • Gradual exposure to anxiety-provoking scenarios
• Why is systematic desensitisation preferred to flooding?

  Flooding can be traumatic and not suitable for all individuals.
• What is the diathesis-stress model?

  • Suggests genes create vulnerability for mental disorders
  • Disorders develop after an activating event or trauma
• What is a negative triad?

  A cognitive approach focusing on negative expectations about self, world, and future.
• What is failure to function adequately?

  An inability to cope with everyday life causing distress to oneself or others.
• How does the social learning theory explain phobias?

  Phobias may be acquired by modeling the fearful behavior of others.
• What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?

  • Feelings of anxiety
  • Feelings of shame associated with obsessions and compulsions
• What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD?

  • Recurrent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions)
  • Awareness that obsessions are irrational
  • Common themes include fears of germs
• How does the cognitive theory explain depression?

  Depression is due to irrational thinking and negative cognitions.
• How are phobias maintained by operant conditioning?

  Avoidance of phobic stimuli reduces anxiety, reinforcing the avoidance behavior.