psychology

• What does coding refer to in memory studies?

  Coding refers to the format or ‘type’ of information stored in each memory store.
• How does coding differ between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)?

  Coding is acoustic in STM and semantic in LTM.
• What did Baddeley (1966) demonstrate about memory recall?

  He found that more mistakes are made when recalling acoustically-similar words immediately and semantically-similar words after 20 minutes.
• What is the capacity of short-term memory according to Miller?

  The capacity of STM is thought to be 7 +/- 2 items.
• What is the significance of chunking in memory recall?

  Chunking helps us remember information by grouping it into manageable units, like 7 days of the week.
• What did Jacobs demonstrate about memory span?

  Jacobs found that the mean letter span was 7.3 and the mean digit span was 9.3.
• What is the duration of short-term memory as demonstrated by Petersen et al (1959)?

  The duration of STM is 18-30 seconds.
• How did Petersen et al (1959) demonstrate the duration of STM?

  They found that increasing retention intervals decreased the accuracy of recall of consonant syllables.
• What is the duration of long-term memory according to Bahrick et al (1975)?

  The duration of LTM is unlimited.
• What did Bahrick et al (1975) find regarding photo recognition over time?

  They found that photo recognition of classmates decreased from 90% to 70% between 15 and 46 years after graduating.
• What is a key issue with Jacobs' historical research on memory capacity?

  The lack of standardization and appreciation of scientific methods may have influenced the reliability of the results.
• What is a strength of Bahrick et al's 1975 study?

  It used meaningful stimuli, which enhances ecological validity and generalizability to real-life situations.
• What are the key issues with Petersen et al and Miller et al studies?

  They feature low mundane realism due to the use of artificial stimuli, limiting generalizability.
• What recent research suggests about Miller's capacity estimate for STM?

  Recent research suggests that the capacity of STM may be closer to 4 chunks rather than 5-9 items.
• What does the multi-store memory model (MSM) represent?

  The MSM represents how memory is stored, transferred, retrieved, and forgotten.

  
• What are the three stores in the multi-store memory model?

  The three stores are the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

  
• What is the capacity and duration of the sensory register?

  The sensory register has a huge capacity but a duration of less than half a second.
• How does information pass from the sensory register to short-term memory?

  Information passes from the sensory register to STM if we pay attention to it.
• How is short-term memory encoded according to Baddeley?

  STM is described as being acoustically encoded.
• What is maintenance rehearsal in the context of STM?

  Maintenance rehearsal is the repetition of new information to keep it in STM.
• What happens to information in STM without prolonged maintenance rehearsal?

  A lack of prolonged maintenance rehearsal causes forgetting.
• How is long-term memory encoded?

  LTM is described as being semantically encoded.
• What must occur for information to be remembered from LTM?

  Retrieval must occur to transfer information back into STM.
• What are the different types of long-term memory proposed by Tulving et al?

  The types are procedural, semantic, and episodic memory.
• How does the MSM view long-term memory?

  The MSM sees LTM as a single, unitary store.
• What did Shallice and Warrington find regarding the nature of STM?

  They found that their amnesiac patient KF had poor recall for auditory stimuli but better recall for visual stimuli, suggesting multiple types of STM.
• What is episodic memory?

  Episodic memory describes memories with personal meaning, including details of when and how events occurred.
• What is semantic memory?

  Semantic memory describes our memories of the world and associated knowledge, such as meanings of words.
• What is procedural memory?

  Procedural memory describes our memories of learned skills, such as swimming or driving.
• How do episodic and semantic memories differ from procedural memories?

  Episodic and semantic memories must be recalled consciously, while procedural memories are recalled unconsciously.
• What did Petersen et al. find regarding the neurological basis of semantic and episodic memories?

  Petersen et al. found that semantic memories were recalled from the left prefrontal cortex, while episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex.
• How can understanding different types of LTM lead to practical applications?

  Understanding episodic memory can lead to targeted treatments for mild cognitive impairments.
• What distinction did Cohen and Squire make regarding memories?

  Cohen and Squire distinguished between declarative (conscious) and non-declarative (unconscious) memories.
• How do the cases of HM and Clive Wearing support the classification of different types of LTM?

  They show that one type of LTM can be impaired while others remain unaffected, indicating separate memory systems.
• What components make up the Working Memory Model (WMM)?

  The WMM includes the central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

  
• What is the role of the central executive in the WMM?

  The central executive allocates tasks to the three slave systems and has a very limited processing capacity.
• What does the phonological loop do in the WMM?

  The phonological loop processes auditory information and allows for maintenance rehearsal.
• What is the function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad?

  The visuo-spatial sketchpad combines visual and spatial information to create a complete picture.
• What is the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad according to Baddeley?

  The capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad is around 4-5 chunks.
• What does the episodic buffer do in the WMM?

  The episodic buffer integrates all types of data processed by the other stores and links STM to LTM.