Cardio Patho

• How many times does the heart beat in a year?

  More than 80 million times
• How much blood does the heart pump daily?

  Over 700 liters
• Why is the heart's function essential to life?

  It supplies oxygen and nutrients to tissues
• What happens to the body if the heart and vascular system are paused for approximately 3 weeks?

  The embryo dies due to lack of support
• How many heart attacks occur annually in the United States?

  Approximately one million
• How does heart disease mortality compare to cancer?

  Heart disease accounts for greater mortality than all types of cancer combined
• What age group experiences roughly one in six deaths from heart disease?

  Persons aged 65 or older
• What is the common endpoint for many forms of cardiac disease?

  Heart failure
• What is heart failure often referred to as?

  Congestive heart failure (CHF)
• What is the prognosis for heart failure?

  Typically poor
• How many deaths per year in the United States are estimated to be caused by CHF?

  More than 500,000
• What occurs when the heart cannot generate sufficient output?

  CHF occurs
• What factors can increase cardiac demands leading to CHF?

  Hypertension, high-demand exercise, anemia, or hyperthyroidism
• What causes a decreased cardiac output in CHF?

  Diminished pumping capacity due to cardiomyopathy, valvular disease, or myocardial infarction
• What is a common symptom experienced by many patients with CHF?

  Mild symptoms at rest or during strenuous exercise
• What are the compensatory mechanisms in heart failure?

  • Activation of the sympathetic nervous system
  • Hypertrophy (increase in heart muscle mass)
  • Increased heart rate and cardiac contractility
  • Activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
• What happens to end-diastolic volume and pressure in a failing heart?

  They increase
• What is pulmonary edema a result of in CHF?

  Backlog of fluid in the pulmonary circulation
• What is the role of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in heart failure?

  It regulates blood pressure, fluid balance, and tissue perfusion
• What is the effect of hypervolemia on the failing heart muscle?

  It increases workload and vascular resistance
• What is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy characterized by?

  Ventricular wall thickening and increased heart mass
• What happens to myocardial oxygen demands in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?

  They progressively increase
• What is the prognosis for patients with cardiomyopathy?

  It typically deteriorates over time
• What are common causes of left-sided heart failure?

  Ischemic heart disease, valvular disease, hypertension, and cardiomyopathies
• What is a common symptom of left-sided heart failure?

  Dyspnea on exertion
• What is the consequence of elevated pulmonary capillary pressure in left-sided heart failure?

  It causes pulmonary edema
• What is the treatment for left-sided heart failure typically include?

  Diuretics, vasodilators, and positive inotropic agents
• What is the role of digoxin in treating left-sided heart failure?

  It increases contractility and cardiac output
• What is right-sided heart failure usually a consequence of?

  Left-sided heart failure
• What are common symptoms of right-sided heart failure?

  Peripheral edema and ascites
• What is a common result of right-sided heart failure?

  Congestion of the liver
• What can untreated right-sided heart failure lead to?

  Congestive failure
• What are the clinical features of left-sided heart failure?

  • Dyspnea on exertion
  • Cough
  • Edema
  • Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea
  • Decreased breath sounds and crackles
• What are the morphophysiological changes in right-sided heart failure?

  • Enlarged liver (hepatomegaly)
  • Jugular venous distention
  • Increased central venous pressure
  • Passive congestion in spleen and kidneys
• What are the effects of systemic venous congestion?

  • Peripheral edema
  • Ascites
  • Jugular venous distention
  • Congestion of the liver
• What leads to right ventricular hypertrophy in right-sided heart failure?

  Increased pressure and resistance in the pulmonary artery
• What are the consequences of right ventricular hypertrophy?

  Decreased contractility and dilation, leading to right-sided heart failure
• What are the characteristic symptoms of right-sided heart failure?

  Peripheral edema and ascites
• What initial symptoms may indicate right-sided heart failure?

  Lower extremity edema
• What serious symptoms can develop from untreated right-sided heart failure?

  Ascites, jugular venous distention, and hepatomegaly